Farm  Forestry 


FARM  FORESTRY 


A  TEXT  BOOK 

Dealing  With  the  Wooded  Parts  of  Southern  F*rms 

and  the  Problems  Growing  Out  of  Them, 

For  Use  in  Agricultural  High 

Schools  and  Colleges 


BY 
ALFRED  AKERMAN,  A.  B.,  M.  F. 


ATHENS,  GEORGIA,  1914 


^ 


-^ 


To 
DAVID  BARROW 

and 

POPE  SPRATLIN 
Two  Farmers  Who  Believe  in  Forestry 


328404 


FOREWORD. 

More  than  half  of  the  area  of  farm  holdings  in  Georgia 
is  in  woods;  and  more  than  half  of  the  wooded  area 
of  the  State  is  in  farm  holdings.  The  future  of  the  for- 
ests of  the  State  depends  largely  on  the  attitude  of  the 
farmers  towards  the  wooded  parts  of  their  holdings.  With  a 
view  to  influencing  their  attitude,  lectures  on  forestery  were 
begun  many  years  ago  at  the  State  College  of  Agriculture  at 
Athens  by  Dr.  H.  C.  White.  These  lectures  were  incidental 
to  the  courses  in  agricultural  chemistry,  forestry  being  taken 
up  in  its  bearing  on  soil  conservation.  When  I  was  elected 
Professor  of  Forestry  in  1906,  Dr.  White  turned  over  this 
work  to  me.  The  lectures  have  been  extended  into  a  course 
of  three  months  for  the  One- Year  students  and  a  course  of 
half  a  year  for  the  Seniors.  The  following  text  is  an  outline 
of  these  courses.  My  chief  purpose  in  writing  it  is  to  save  a 
part  of  the  time  spent  by  the  students  in  taking  and  copying 
lecture  notes.  But  the  problems  discussed  should  also  be  of 
interest  to  those  who  are  managing  farms;  and  while  some 
of  them  may  not  find  all  of  the  suggestions  practicable,  in 
the  conditions  existing  on  their  farms,  they  will  find  that 
a  part  of  them  are  practicable,  and  as  the  market  and  other 
conditions  change  with  the  industrial  development  of  the 
country,  they  will  find  that  more  of  these  suggestions  can  be 
carried  out. 

The  teachers  in  the  District  Agricultural  Schools  and 
other  rural  schools  may  find  the  book  helpful  in  connection 
with  their  courses  in  farm  management  or  nature  study.  I 
would  remind  these  that  the  text  is  not  intended  to  be  ex- 
haustive, and  that  it  is  even  more  important  than  in  some 
other  subjects  to  supplement  the  text  with  the  teacher's  own 


knowledge  and  with  as  much  first  hand  study  as  the  students 
can  find  the  time  for.  It  has  been  said  that  one  of  the  needs 
of  our  schools  and  colleges  is  thin  text  books;  and  if  I  have 
succeeded  in  nothing  else,  I  have  at  least  succeeded  in  mak- 
ing this  one  brief. 

While  the  discussions  refer  to  Georgia,  the  conditions  are 
about  the  same  in  some  of  the  surrounding  States;  and  the 
discussions  will  apply  to  them. 

Acknowledgement  is  made  to  the  State  College  of  Agri- 
culture for  the  use  of  several  photographs,  and  to  the  Board 
of  Entomology  for  the  revision  of  the  notes  on  insects. 


PART  I.    PRODUCTION  OF  TIMBER :,  •  ;  /. 

CHAPTER  I.    TIMBER  TREES 
Sedlion  1.     Roots,  Stem  and  Foliage. 

1.  For  the  purpose  of  study  a  tree  may  be  divided  into 
three  parts;— roots,  stem,  and  foliage. 

2.  The  roots  penetrate  the  soil  and  give  the  tree  a  base 
to  stand  on.     They  also  absorb  water  and  other  substances 
which  the  tree  needs  in  its  life-processes.     The  absorbing 
surface  of  the  roots  is  increased  by  throwing  out  root-hairs. 
These  are  not  rootlets,  but  are  outgrowths  from  the  roots 
and  rootlets.     They  live  for  a  few  days  and  then  die  away: 
others  are  thrown  out  as  needed. 

3.  The  stem  and  branches  lift  the   foliage  from  the 
ground  and  expose  it  to  the  light  and  air;  and  it  is  through 
them  that  water  and  other  substances  (in  solution)  pass  from 
the  roots  to  the  foliage.    The  stem  grows  in  diameter    and 
height  by  the  addition  of  new  wood.   In  most  trees  the  old  wood 
can  be  distinguished  from  the  new;  and  the  age  of  the  tree 
can  be  found  by  counting  the  annual  layers.    The  stem  may 
be  likened  to  a  set  of  cones,  one  fitting  over  the  other.     The 
growth    of    the   branches  is   like  the    stem;  and  as  they 
grow  outward  they  become  larger:  when  they  die  and  are 
broken  off  the  wood  closes  over  them.    Branches  make  knots 
in  lumber,  and  the  kind  of  knots  influences  the  quality  of  the 
lumber:  they  will  be  referred  to  again. 

4.  The  foliage  of  a  tree  is  its  kitchen;   for  there  is 
where  its  food  is  prepared.     Water  and  other   substances 
from  the  soil  and  carbon  dioxide  (C02)  from  the  air  are  brok- 
en up  in  the  leaves  in  the  presence  of  light,  and  are  made 
into  compounds  that  are  used  by  the  tree  in  building  up  its 


tissues.  As.  a  result  of  .this  process  oxygen  is  freed  and 
passes  off  into  the-air  and  carbon  is  locked  up  in  the  tree. 
About  49  per  cent  of  wood,  dry  weight,  is  carbon,  most  of 
which  is  drawn  from  the  carbon  dioxide  in  the  air.  Its  ores- 
ence  in  the  air  is  not  apparent;  and  it  seems  a  strange  transfor- 
mation from  the  invisible  form  to  a  bulky  substance  like  wood. 

5.  There  is  another  process  going  on  in  the  foliage,  and 
that  is  respiration.     Trees,  in  common  with  animals,  breathe; 
and  as  a  result  oxygen  is  taken  from  the  air  and   carbon 
dioxide  is  returned  to  it.     This  process  is  going  on  night  and 
day.     The  other  process— the  preparation  of  food— goes  on 
only  in  the  presence  of  light;  so  trees  give  off  an  excess  of 
oxygen  during  the  day  and  an  excess  of  carbon  dioxide  at 
night. 

6.  A  large  amount  of  water  is  passed  off  through  the 
foliage,    especially   when   the  air  is   warm   and  dry.     The 
quantity  of  water  passed  in  this  way  from  the  soil  into    the 
air  is  so  great  that  it  is  doubtful  whether  forests  in  all  con- 
ditions conserve  the  moisture  in  the  soil  as  well  as  some  other 
form  of  covering — a  layer  of  pulverized  soil,   for  example. 
There  is  no  reasonable  doubt,   however,   that  on  mountain 
slopes  and  hillsides  where  much  of  the  falling  water  would 
be  lost  but  for  the  obstructions  which  a  forest  cover  puts  i?) 
its  way,  that  the  balance  is  in  favor  of  the  forest. 

7.  The  leaves  are  formed  and  placed  for  the  work  they 
do.     They   are   formed  so  that  a  vast  amount  of  foliage  is 
carried  even  by  a  small  tree;  and  they  are  arranged  so  as  to 
be  exposed  to  the  air  and  light.     Oak  leaves  are  in  spirals, 
so  that  a  leaf  does  riot  cut  off  the  light  from  the  one  that 
stands  next  below  it  on  the  twig.     Ash  leaves  are  in  pairs, 
each  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  twig;  and  the  pair  next  be- 


3 

low  is  at  right  angles  to  the  pair  above.  The  branches  fol- 
low the  same  arrangement  as  the  leaves,  and  evidently  for 
the  same  purpose. 

8.  To  gain  an  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  foliage  on  a  tree 
some  of  my  students  cut  a  shortleaf  pine.     It  was  5.5  inches 
in  diameter  and  30.3  feet  high.     The  crown  was  14.2  feet 
long  and  9.6  feet  across.     More  than   45,000  needles  were 
counted  and  weighed:  the  rest  were  weighed  and  the  num- 
ber calculated   by  proportion.     The  total  for  the  tree  was 
195,500  needles.     More  than  500  needles  were  measured  and 
the  average  length  of  the  needles  was  found  to  be  3.33  inches. 
The  total   length   of   the    needles    was    65,101,500  inches. 
Placed  end  to  end  they  would  reach   10.27  miles.    The   tree 
had  not  stood  in   full  light  and  had  a  thinner  crown  than 
many  others.     It  is  probable  that  the  needles  on  five  well- 
stocked  acres  of  pine  timber  would  more  than  reach  around 
the  world. 

9.  Summary;— 

(a)  Roots  are  for;— 

(1)  Position  or  anchorage, 

(2)  Absorption. 

(b)  Stem  and  branches  are  for;— 

(1)  Elevation  and  exposure  of  foliage, 

(2)  Communication  between  roots  and  foliage. 

(c)  Foliage  is  for;— 

(1)  Preparation  of  food, 

(2)  Respiration, 

(3)  Transpiration. 


SECTION  2.    Notes  on  Important  Trees 

10.  The  forest  flora  of  Georgia  is  rich.    The  State  em- 
braces parts  of  the  Southern  Appalachian  mountains,    the 
Piedmont  Plateau,  and  the  Coastal  Plain ;  and  there  are  wide 
variations  of  soil  and  climate.    There  are  new  soils  fresh 
from  the  decay  of  the  rocks,  and  there  are  old  soils  that  have 
been  modified  by  many  agencies.    The  harsh  climate  of  the 
north  slopes  of  the  Appalachians  is  very  different  from  that 
of  the  Coastal  Plain.    These  variations  in  the  soil  and  climate 
have  given  rise  to  a  variety  in  the  trees.    About  one-fourth 
of  the  species  of  the  United  States  are  found  in  the  forests 
of  Georgia. 

11.  The  importance  of  a  tree  to  the  farm  owner  does 
not  depend  wholly  on  its  adaptability  to  farm  uses.     Its 
abundance  and  general  usefulness  should  also  be  taken  into 
account.    Several  have  been  included  in  the  following  list 
which  have  no  special  usefulness  on  the  farm;  but  they  de- 
serve consideration  on  account  of  their  abundance  or  their 
value  on  the  general  market 

12.  A  convenient  way  of  indicating  the  distribution  of 
trees  is  by  referring  them  to  the  three  larger  physiographic 
features  of  the  State;— Mountains,    Piedmont,  and  Coastal 
Plain.    The  change  from  one  of  these  regions  to  another  is 
not  always  abrupt;  but  the  differences  in  the  forest  flora  are 
distinct  enough  to  indicate  the  part  of  the  State  in   which   a 
tree  is  found. 

13.  There  is  much  confusion  in  the  common  names  for 
trees.    In  studying  them  with  a  class,  the  members  of  which 
come  from  different  parts  of  the  State,    a  standard  set  of 
names  is  necessary.     The  names,  both  common  and  botanic, 


5 

given  below  are  taken  from  Sudworth's  Checklist.    The 
botanic  names  are  given  only  for  reference. 

14.  The  weights  are  from  several  sources.     They  are 
given  for  dry  wood.     Air-seasoned  wood  is  about  15  per  cent 
heavier  than  dry  wood;  and  green   wood  is  often  twice  as 
heavy. 

15.  The  following  notes  should  be  used  in   connection 
with  a  study  in  the   woods  of  bark,    leaf,    branching,    bud, 
flower,  fruit,  and  seed.     It  was  thought  best  not  to  give  full 
descriptions,  the  aim  being  to  stress  the  things  that  are  most 
striking  to  the  observer,  and  therefore  of  most  use  in  identi- 
fication. 

16.  The  local  uses  of  the  different  kinds  of  wood  should 
also  be  studied. 

(a)    The  Conifers 

17.  Longleaf  pine,  PINUS  PALUSTRIS.— The  needles  are 
from  8  to  18  inches  long,  3  in  a  cluster,  in  dense  tufts  at  the 
ends  of  the  branches.    The  cones  are  from  6  to  10  inches 
long  and  slightly  curved.    The  seeds  are  about  half  an  inch 
long;  they  are  provided  with  papery  wings  which  help  scat- 
ter them  away  from  the  trees  that  bear  them. 

18.  The  wood  weighs  about  39  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot. 
It  is  hard,  tough,  and  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil.     It  is 
used  for  many  purposes,    from   pig-pens  to  interior  finish. 
This  and  the  Cuban  pine  are  the  chief  sources  of  naval 
stores. 

19.  It  occurs  in  the  Coastal  Plain,  in  some  places  ex- 
tending  scatteringly   into    the  Piedmont  Plateau.     In  the 
western  part  of  the  State  it  extends  even  into  the  Mountains. 

20.  Cuban  pine,  PINUS  HETEROPHYLLA.  —  This  is  some- 
times called  slash  pine.     The  needles  are  from  8  to  12  inches 


6 

long;  and  they  occur  2  and  3  in   a   cluster.     The   cones   are 
from  3  to  6  inches  long. 

21.  The  wood  is  similar  to  that  of  longleaf  pine,   and  it 
is  not  distinguished  from  it  on  the  market.     It  weighs  about 
40  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot. 

22.  It  occurs  in  the  Coastal  Plain;  but  it  does  riot  ex- 
tend as  far  inland  as  the  longleaf.     It   grows   more   rapidly 
than  the  longleaf;   and  it  has  a  better  flow   of  resin;   and 
where  it  is  practicable  to  make  a  choice  between   the   two 
it  should  be  favored.      The  ways  in  which  a  tree  may  be  fa- 
vored will  be  discussed  further  on,  in  connection  with  repro- 
duction and  thinning. 

23.  Loblolly  pine,  PINUS  TAEDA.— The  needles  are  6  to 
9  inches  long,  occurring  3  in  a  cluster.    The  cones  are  from  3 
to  5  inches  long:  they  are  closely  attached  to  the  stem. 

24.  The  wood  is  lighter  in  weight  than  the   longleaf. 
Cuban,  and  shortleaf  pines,  running  about  32  pounds  to   the 
cubic  foot.     Its  coarse  grain  tends  to  unfit  it  for  finishing. 
It  does  not  last  long  in  contact  with  the  soil,  and   this  unfits 
it  for  posts.     But  it  does  as  well  as  the  other  pines  for  sleep- 
ers, studding  and    rafters;   and   it   costs   less.     Its   lack   of 
durability  in  contact  with  the  soil  may  be  overcome  by  treat- 
ing it  with  creosote  which  the  porous  wood  readily  absorbs. 

25.  It  occurs  in  the  Coastal  Plain  a-nd  the   Piedmont 
Plateau.     It  reproduces  abundantly  and  grows  rapidly.     It 
often  comes  up  in  dense  stands  in  abandoned  fields,   and  for 
this  reason  it  is  sometimes  called  Old  Field  Pine.     On  ac- 
count of  its  rapid  growth  and  ability  to  absorb  preservatives 
it  is  destined  to  play  an  important  role  in  the  forestry  of  the 
Piedmont  Plateau.     Where  it  competes    with    the  shortleaf, 
and  there  is  a  choice,  the  loblolly  should  be  favored. 


7 

26.  Shortleaf  pine,  PINUS  ECHINATA.— The  needles  are 
from  3  to  5  inches  long;  they  occur  2  and  3  in  a  cluster. 
The  cones  are  1  and  a  ha'f  to  2  and  a  half  inches  long,  and 
occur  on  short  stalks. 

27.  The  wood  weighs  about  35  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot. 
Like  the  longleaf,  it  is  usad  for  many  purposes,  although  for 
most  purposes  it  is  inferior  to  it. 

28.  The  shortleaf  occurs  in  all  parts  of  the  State. 

29.  The  pines  have  long,  straight  stems  that  are  adapt- 
ed to  sawing:  into  lumber.     Their  wood  is  easily  worked  with 
saw,  plane,  and  chisel.     It  has  considerable  strength,  and  in 
most  cases  a  pleasing  grain.      Its   weight  is  less  than  most 
of  the   hardwoods,    and   this  lessens   tha  cost  of  handling 
it.      The  combination   of  good  qualities   found  in  the  pines 
make  them  the  most  useful  of  all   timber   trees.     The  four 
spoken  of  above  are    the   most    important  in  Georgia;  but 
six  others  occur  in  the  State,  and  some  of  them   have   local 
importance. 

30.  Bald  cypress,  TAXODIUM  DISTICHUM.— The  leaves 
are  from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch   long,    and  oc- 
cur in  two  ranks  along  the  slender  branches.     There  is  a 
form  with  foliage  appressed  to  the  branches;  but  the  other 
form  is  the  more  common.     Unlike  most  of  the  conifers,    to 
which  family  it  belongs,  the  cypress  sheds  its  foliage  in  win- 
ter, which  gives  the  tree  a  bald  appearance,  hence  the  name 
Bald  Cypress.     Although  classed  with  the  cone-bearers,    the 
resemblance  of  the  fruits  to  cones  is  not  apparent  unless  ex- 
amined closely;  they  are  about  one  inch  through   and   nearly 
round. 

31.  The  wood  weighs  29  pounds  to   the  cubic  foot.     It 
is  easily  worked;  and  it  lasts  well  in  contact   with   the  soil. 


8 

It  is   used   for  ties,    posts,    poles,  water  tanks,    tubs,    and 
shingles. 

32.  The  cypress  occurs  along  rivers  and  in  swamps  in 
the  Coastal  Plain.     It  has  been  said  that  the  cypress  is  not 
reproducing  itself,  and  that  it  will  disappear  when  the  pres- 
ent stands  are  cut.       This  statement,    like   many  others 
that  are  made  about  the  reproduction  of  trees,  is  not  borne 
out  by  the  facts.     All  through  its  range  there  are  seedlings 
and  saplings  in  abundance  wherever  the  fires  have  not  run 
through  the  swamps  and  bays  during  dry    weather  and  de- 
stroyed the  reproduction. 

33.  Red  juniper,   JUNIPERUS  VIRGINIANA.— The  leaves 
are  bluish-green,  about  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  long,    and   us- 
ually appressed  to  the  twigs.     The  fruit  resembles   a   berry; 
it  is  pale  green  at  first  and  dark   bluish-green  at  maturity, 
from  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  an  inch  in   diameter.     The 
bark  is  dark  brown,  tinged  with  red;  and   it  separates  into 
stringy  scales.    The  heartwood  is  dull  red,  the  sapwood  nearly 
white. 

34.  The  wood  weighs  31  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.     It 
works  easily,  and  it  is  durable  in  contact   with   the   ground. 
It  makes  good  posts,  poles,  and  bridge  sills.     It  is  excellent 
for  chests  and  closets;  for  the  odor  of  the  wood  tends  to  keep 
away  moths 

35.  It  occurs  throughout   the  State,    preferring  lime- 
stone formations,   but  growing  on   a   variety   of  soils.     In 
many  parts  of  the  State  it  is  known  under  the  name  of   Red 
Cedar. 

(b)     Broadleaf  Trees 

36.  Black   walnut,   JUGLANS    NIGRA.— The  leaves  are 
compound,  from  12  to  24  inches  long,  with   15   to  23  lance- 


9 

shaped  leaflets.  The  fruits  are  borne  singly  or  in  pairs; 
they  are  roundish,  and  yellow-green  in  color,  turning  black 
after  they  are  dropped.  The  winter  buds  are  covered  with  a 
buff  colored  nap;  the  lateral  ones  are  often  superposed,  two 
or  three  in  the  axil  of  the  leaf.  Twigs  when  broken  give 
out  a  characteristic  odor,  which  helps  in  identifying  the  tree. 
The  bark  is  dark  brown  and  divided  into  ridges. 

37.  The  wood  weighs  about  38  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot. 
It  is  a  rich,  dark  brown;  it  has  a  pleasing  grain;  it  works 
easily;  and  it  takes  a  high  polish.    These  qualities  fit  it  for 
furniture  and  interior  finish.     It  brings  the  highest  prices  of 
any  of  the  North  American  woods.    The  nuts  are  used  for 
food. 

38.  The  black  walnut  occurs  on  bottoms  and   rich  hill- 
sides throughout  the  state.     It  grows  rapidly.     Since  knots 
and  burls  are  not  regarded  as  a  defect  in  walnut,  it  may   be 
grown  in  open  places  where  it  branches  profusely   and   still 
produce  valuable  timber.     It  is  therefore  recommended  as  a 
shade  tree  for  yards,  roadways,  and  pastures. 

39.  Mockernut,    HICORIA  ALBA.—  The  leaves  are  com- 
pound, 8  to  12  inches  long,   with  5  to  7  lance-shaped  leaflets. 
The  midribs  are  covered  with  brown  hairs.  The  foliage  is  fra- 
grant.    The  fruit  is  one  and  a  fourth  to  2  inches  long.     The 
nut  has  4  prominent  ridges;  it  has  thick  walls   arid   a  small 
kernel. 

40.  The  wood  weighs  about  53  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot. 
It  is  hard,  strong,  and  tough;  and  these    qualities  fit  it  for 
spokes,  axle  trees,  ax  handles,  whip-staffs,  and  the  like.     It 
makes  excellent  fuel. 

41.  The  mockernut  occurs  throughout  the  State. 

42.  There    are    several    other    hickories    in    Georgia. 


19 

Among  them  may  be  mentioned   the   pignut,    the  bitternut, 
the  shagbark,  and  the  shellbark. 

43.  The  pecan  is  also  a  hickory.     It  is  not  a  native   of 
Georgia;  but  it  has  been  introduced  on  a  large   scale  on   ac- 
count of  of  its  nuts.     It  is  inferior  to  many  of  the  hickories  as 
a  timber  tree. 

44.  Black  willow,  SALIX  NIGRA.  —The  leaves  are  lance- 
shaped,  about  4  inches  long  and  half  an  inch  wide,  with  fine 
teeth  along  the  margins.     The  flowers  are  in  catkins,    about 
2  inches  long. 

45.  The  wood  weighs  about  28  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot. 
It  is  easily  worked,  but  is  not  strong  or  durable.     Willow 
rods  are  used  to  make  baskets,  wicker  ware,  and  rustic   fur- 
niture. 

46.  The  willow  occurs  throughout  Georgia  on  wet  soils 
along  water  courses.    It  may  be  used,    like  cottonwood,    to 
stop  washing  along  ditches,  creeks,  and  rivers. 

47.  Cottonwood,  PoPULUS  DELTOIDEA.— The  leaves  are 
about  4  inches  long  and  3  inches  wide,  somewhat   triangular 
in  shape.    The  buds  are  about  half  an  inch  long:    they   con- 
tain a  sweet-scented  resin.     The  fruits  are  borne  in  catkins, 
and  are  covered    with   a   cotton-like    substance,    hence   the 
name. 

48.  The  cottonwood  weighs  about  24  pounds  to  the  cu- 
bic foot.     It  is  soft,  does  not  last  in  contact   with    the   soil, 
and  is  apt  to  warp  in  seasoning. 

49.  It  occurs  throughout  the  State  on   the   banks   of 
streams.     It  grows  rapidly  and   is  easily  propagated.     Like 
the  willow  it  may  be   used    to   orevent    washing   along   the 
banks  of  streams. 

50.  Beech,  FAGUS  ATROPUNICEA.  -The    leaves   suggest 


11 

those  of  the  chestnut.  They  are  2  and  a  fourth  to  5  inches  long 
and  1  to  3  inches  wide,  with  coarse  teeth  along  the  margins. 
The  winter  buds  are  one-half  to  an  inch  long,  slender,  dark 
brown  and  shiney.  The  fruit  is  a  small  burr,  about  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  long,  on  a  stalk  of  the  same  length.  The 
nut  is  small,  about  the  size  of  a  chinquapin  but  triangular  in 
shape. 

51.  Beech  wood  weighs  about  43  pounds  to  the  cubic 
foot.     It  is  hard  and  strong  but  not  durable  in  contact   with 
the  ground.     It  makes  beautiful  and  durable  flooring.      It  is 
also  used  for  furniture.     Like  most  of  the  heavy   woods  it 
makes  good  fuel.    The  mast  is  relished  by  swine,   and   it  is 
said  to  impart  an  excellent  flavor  to  the  meat. 

52.  Beech  occurs  scatteringly  all  over  Georgia,  usually  on 
rich  moist  slopes  or  bottom  lands.     It  endures  partial  shade; 
and  when  forestry  is  developed  to  the  extent  that  it  has 
been  developed  in   other  countries,    this  ability  to  endure 
shade  may  be  used  to  grow  a  crop  of  beech  under  stands  of 
thin-topped  kinds  that  do  not  cast  a  dense  shade. 

53.  Chestnut,  CASTANEA  DENTATA.— The  leaves  are  ob- 
long lance-shaped,  with  coarse  teeth,    corresponding  to   the 
ends  of  the  veins.     They  are  6  to  9  inches  long   and   2   to  3 
inches  wide.     The  male  flowers  are  in  catkins,  6  to  8  inches 
long  when  grown.    The  fruit  is  a  spiney  burr. 

54.  Chestnut  wood  weighs  about  28  pounds  to  the  cubic 
foot.     It  is  easily  split.     It  lasts  well   in   contact  with  the 
ground.     It  is  used  for  posts,  vine-yard  stakes,    and   bridge 
sills.     The  durability  of  the  wood  in  contact  with  the  ground 
is  due  to  the  presence  of  tannic  acid.     The  extraction   of 
acid  from  chestnut  for  tanning  purposes  has  become    a   con- 
siderable industry  in  recent  years. 


12 

55.  The  nuts  are  superior  in  flavor  to  the  foreign   ches- 
nuts,  although  they  are  smaller.     Some  of  the  mountain  far- 
mers make  a  practice  of  gathering  chestnuts    to   be   sold   in 
Afchens,    Gainesville,    Atlanta,    and    other   Middle   Georgia 
cities,  where  they  bring  about  $3  a  bushel. 

56.  The  chestnut  occurs  abundantly  in   the   Mountains 
and  scatteringly  in  the  Piedmont.     It  is  said  that  in   former 
times  it  was  more  abundant  in  the  Piedmont  than  at  present; 
and  its  decrease  has  been  explained  by  insect  and  fungous 
attacks.     It  is  probable  that  the  importance  of  insect  and  fun- 
gous attacks  has  been  over-stressed.     The  insects  and  fungi 
have  no  doubt  done  their  part  of  the  destructive   work;   but 
they  are  not  the  only  agents  at  work.     The  wood  is  in  de- 
mand, even  in  small  sizes;  and  this  has  led  to  severe  cutting. 
The  nuts  are  eaten  by  men  and  other  animals;  this  hinders 
a  plentiful  reproduction.     It  is  not  fire-resistant.     When   all 
of  these  things  are  considered,  there  is  no   wonder  that  the 
chestnut  is  not  so  abundant  as  it  was. 

57.  In  the  New  England  and  Middle  States   a  fungous 
disease  known  as  the  chestnut  bark  disease,  has  done   great 
harm  to  the  chestnut  forests  for  the  last  few  years.     It  is  to 
be  hoped  that  it  will  run  its   course  before  it   reaches   the 
South.     It  is  unwise,  however,  to  take  alarm  at  an   outbreak 
of  one  of  these  diseases,  except  to  observe  such  precautions 
as  one  may  to  prevent  an  outbreak  or  to  curb  its  spread. 
By  referring  to  the  chapters  on  caring  for  the  stand   it   will 
be  seen  that  the  preventive  measures  are  simple  and  consist 
mostly  in  keeping  out  fires  and  in  thinning  the  stands  at  in- 
tervals to  keep  them  in  a  healthy,    thrifty,    resistant  condi- 
tion. 

58.  White  oak,  QUERCUS  ALBA. —The  leaves  are  deeply 


13 

divided  into  rounded  lobes.  They  are  green  above  and  pale  on 
the  under  surface.  The  acorns  are  chestnut  brown,  about  a 
fourth  of  an  inch  long,  enclosed  bv  a  cup  for  about  a  fourth 
of  their  length.  The  bark  is  a  light  grey,  and  broken  into 
scales. 

59.  White  oak  weighs  about  50  pounds  to  the    cubic 
foot.     It  is  strong,  tough,  and  durable;  and  it  has  a  pleasing 
grain.     It  is  used  for  ties,    posts,    wagon   tongues,    spokes, 
cotton  baskets,    fuel,  furniture,    and  interior  finish.      The 
white  oak  is  one  of  the  best  all-round  farm  timbers;  and   in 
spite  of  its  slow  growth  it  deserves  favorable  consideration. 

60.  The  white  oak  occurs  throughout  the  State. 

61.  There  are  several  oaks  in  Georgia  which  are  closely 
related  to  the  white  oak.     Among  them   may  be  mentioned 
the  post  oak,  the  cow  oak,  the  chestnut  oak,    and  the  live 
oak.     The  oaks  that  belong  to  the  white  oak   group   usually 
have  lighter-colored  bark  than   the   black  oaks,    no   bristle 
points  on  their  leaf  lobes,  and  mature  their  acorns  in  one  sea- 
son.    The  wood  is  tougher  and  lasts  longer  in   contact   with 
the  ground  than  the  black  oaks. 

62.  Red  oak,  QUERCUS  RUBRA.— The  leaves  are  divided 
into  pointed  lobes.     The  acorns  are  broad  at  the  base,  three- 
fourths  to  1  and  a  fourth  inches   long,    one-half  to  1   inch 
wide,  borne  in  a  shallow   cup.     The   bark   breaks  into   long 
ridges  that  sometimes  suggest  chestnut  bark. 

63.  The  wood  weighs  about  46  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot. 
It  is  brittle  as  compared  with  white  oak,  and  it  is  not  so  dur- 
able in  contact  with  the  ground.     It  is  used   for  furniture, 
interior  finish,  and  firewood. 

64.  The  red  oak  occurs  in  the  Mountains  and  the   Pied- 
mont. 


14 

65.  The  red  oak  is  taken  as  an  illustration  of  the  blacl 
oak  group.     Of  the  others  belonging  to  this  group  the  Span 
ish,  scarlet,  yellow,  water,  and  willow  oaks  may  be  mention 
ed.    The  black  oaks  have  dark  bark,   bristle  points  on  th 
lobes  of  their  leaves,  and  take  two  years  to  mature  thei 
acorns.     For  use  about  the  farm  the  black  oaks  are  inferio 
to  the  white  oaks. 

66.  Red  mulberry,    MORUS    RUBRA.—  The    leaves    an 
ovate,    pointed   at  the  apex   and   heart  shaped  at  the  base 
coarsely  serrate,  3  to  5  inches  long  and  2  and  a  half  to  < 
inches  broad,  dark  green  above  and  lighter  green  on  the  un 
der  surface;  sometimes  lobed.     The  winter  buds  are   ovate 
about  a  fourth  of  an  inch  long,  with  chestnut-brown   scales 
The  fruit  when  ripe  is  black,  sweet,  and  juicy,  and  about  ] 
and  a  quarter  inches  long.     When  the  bark  is  broken  a  milkj 
juice  appears;  and  this  with  the  peculiar  smell  of  the  broker 
bark,  aids  in  its  identification. 

67.  The  wood  weighs  about  37  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot. 
It  is  durable  in  contact  with   the  ground,   and   is  used  foi 
fence  posts. 

68.  The  red  mulberry  occurs  scatteringly  on  good   soils 
throughout  the  State. 

69.  Tulip-tree,   LIRIODENDRON  TULIPIFERA.— The  flow- 
er resembles  a  tulip.    The  winter  buds  are  about  half  an 
inch  long,  with  dark  red,  leathery  coverings.     The  tendency 
to  form  a  clean,  central  shaft  is  stronger  in  this  tree  than  in 
many  of  the  broadleaf  trees.     This  aids  in   distinguishing  it 
in  the  woods;  and  it  increases  its  value  as  a  timber  tree. 

70.  The  wood  weighs  about  26  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot. 
The  heart  is  light  yellow,  often  tinged  with  green;   the   sap- 
wood  is  creamy  white.     On  exposure  to   the  air  the   wood 


15 

takes  on  a  brownish  hue.  It  is  easily  worked.  It  is  used 
for  boxes,  wagon  bodies,  and  interior  finish.  It  does  not 
last  in  contact  with  the  ground;  but  it  makes  a  durable 
shingle. 

71.  The  tulip-tree  is  widely  distributed  over  the  State, 
usually  on  deep,  rich,  moist  soils.    It  grows  rapidly  and  at- 
tains very  large  dimensions.     It  has  been  claimed  for  it  that 
it  is  the  largest  tree  east  of  the  Mississippi.     It  is  often 
called  Yellow  Poplar,  probably  with  reference  to  the  color  of 
the  wood. 

72.  Sweet    gum,     LIQUIDAMBAR    STYRACIFLUA.— The 
leaves  are  palmately  lobed,  light  green  in    summer,   turning 
crimson  in  autumn.     The  branches  have   corky   wings,    re- 
sembling those  of  the  wing  elm.     The  seeds  are  borne  in 
heads  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  which  remain  on  the  tree 
through  the  winter.    When  the  bark  is  broken  a  balsam  is 
exuded,  which  gives  the  tree  the  name  of  sweet  gum. 

73.  The  wood  weighs  36  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.     It  is 
rather  hard  to  season  and  must  be  carefully  stacked  to  pre- 
vent warping.     It  is  used  for   wooden-ware  and  furniture. 
As  other  woods  become  scarcer  the  demand  for  sweet  gum  is 
increasing. 

74.  It  occurs  throughout  the  State  on  rich  bottom  lands. 
It  is  sometimes  sold  on  the  lumber  yards  under  the  name  of 
Red  Gum. 

75.  Sycamore,    PLATANUS   OCCIDENT ALIS.— The   outer 
bark  sheds,  leaving  smooth  green  or  white  trunk  and   limbs. 
The  fruits  are  balls,  about  1   inch  in  diameter.     The  seeds 
are  very  small  and  are  provided  with  tufts  of  hair  which  fa- 
cilitate their  distribution  by  the  wind. 

76.  The  wood  weighs  36  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.     It 


16 

has  a  pleasing  grain,  but  is  rather  hard  to  work.  It  is  used 
for  wooden-ware  and  interior  finish.  Like  the  sweet  gum  it 
is  more  in  demand  as  the  supply  of  more  popular  woods  de- 
creases. 

77.  The  sycamore  occurs  throughout  the  State  on  deep, 
moist  soils.     It  attains  very  large  dimensions,    and   disputes 
with  the  tulip-tree  the  honor  of  being  the  largest  tree  in  the 
eastern  United  States. 

78.  Black  cherry,  PRUNUS  SEROTINA.—  The  leaves  are 
oblong-lanceolate,  resembling  those  of  the  peach  which   be- 
longs to  the  same  genus.    The  fruit  is  about  a  third  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  black   when   ripe,    occurring  in   racemes. 
The  bark  has  a  bitter  taste. 

79.  The  wood  weighs  36  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.     The 
heart  wood  is  a  beautiful  reddish  brown  and  it  takes  a  high 
poli3h.     It  is  used   for  furniture  and  interior  finish.     The 
fruit  is  used  to  small  extent  in  flavoring  drinks;  and  both  the 
fruit  and  bark  are  used  in  medicinal  preparations. 

80.  The  black  cherry  occurs  all  over  the  state  on  deep, 
rich  soils. 

81.  Honey  locust,  GLEDITSIA  TRIACANTHOS. — This  tree 
is  known  by  its  compound  leaves,    the   leaflets  of  which  are 
smaller  than  those  of  the  yellow  locust;  by   large,    branched 
thorns;  and  by  its  dark  brown  fruits,  12  to  18  inches  long. 

82.  The  wood  weighs  42  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.     It  is 
hard,  strong,  and  durable.     It  is  used  for  fence  posts.     The 
fruits  have  some  value  as  stock  food. 

83.  This  tree  does  not  appear  to  be  native  anywhere  in 
Georgia;  but  it  has  been  widely  introduced. 

84.  Yellow  locust,  ROBINIA  PSEUDACACIA.  —The  leaves 
are  compound,  8  to  14  inches  long,    with   15  to  21  leaflets. 


17 

The  large  white,  sweet-scented  flowers  which  come  in  May 
are  of  the  familiar  pea-blossom  shape.  The  fruit  is  a  pod  3 
to  4  inches  long  and  a  half  inch  wide.  The  small  branches 
have  short  curved  prickles,  unlike  the  long  thorns  of  the 
honey  locust. 

85.  The  wood  weighs  45  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.     It  is 
yellowish-brown  in  color,  hard,  and  durable  in  contact  with 
the  ground.     It  makes  good  fence  posts. 

86.  The  yellow  locust  appears  to  be  native  only  in   the 
Mountains;  but  it  has  been  widely  planted  in  other  parts  of 
the  State.     Unfortunately  it  is  often  attacked  by  borers 
when  planted  outside  of  its  natural  range. 

87.  Red  maple,  ACER  RUBRUM.— This  tree  is  known  by 
its  opposite  branches  and  the  reddish  color  of  its  twigs,  buds, 
and  keys. 

88.  The  wood  weighs  39  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.     It  is 
used  for  wooden-ware,  furniture,  and  fuel. 

89.  The  red  maple  occurs  throughout  the  Stace,    com- 
monly on  wet  soil  along  streams  and  in  swamps. 

90.  The  silver  maple  and  the  sugar  maple  also  occur  in 
the  State.     They  are  used  for  the  same  purposes  as   the   red 
maple  where  they  occur  in  sufficient  quantities  to  be  used. 

91.  Basswood,  TILIA  AMERICANA. — The  flowers  are  sus- 
pended from  peculiar,  modified   leaves.     The   leaves  aid  in 
the  distribution  of  the  seed. 

92.  The  wood  weighs  28  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.     It  is 
easily  worked;  it  has  no   taste  or  odor.     These   properties 
make  it  an  an  excellent  material  for  wooden-ware,  bee  gums, 
boxes,    and   wagon  bodies. 

93.  The  range  of  the  basswood  has   not  been   worked 
out.     It  is  known  to  occur  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State, 


18 

and  other  species  of  the  genus  occur  in  other  parts.  These 
other  species  have  similar  properties  and  uses  to  the  one 
described. 

94.  Black  gum,  NYSSA  SYLVATICA.— The  leaves  vary  in 
shape,  but  are  generally  lance-shaped,   2  to  5  inches  long, 
1  to  3  inches   wide,  dark  green,    turning  crimson  in   au- 
tumn.   The  fruits  occur  1  to  3  in  a  cluster:  they  are  about  . 
half  an  inch  long,  dark  blue;  the  clusters  are  on  stalks  about 

1  inch  long. 

95.  The  wood  weighs  40  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.     It 
does  not  splinter  and  for  this  reason  makes  a  good  floor  for  a 
warehouse,  storeroom,  or  barn  where  it  is  subjected  to  rough 
usage.     It  also  makes  good  rollers  for  moving  heavy  objects. 

96.  The   black    gum  and  related   species    are    found 
throughout  the  State,  commonly  on  moist  or  wet  soils,   along 
water  courses  or  in  swamps.     The  fruit  of  one   species,    the 
Sour  Tupelo  or  Ogeechee  Lime,  is  used  for  preserves. 

97.  Persimmon,   DIOSPYROS  VIRGINIANA.— The    leaves 
are  dark  green  and  shiney  on  the  upper  surface,  paler  below, 
4  to  6  inches  long  and  2  to  3  inches  wide.     The  fruit  is  from 
1  to  1  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter,  orange  colored. 

98.  The  wood  weighs  49  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.     It  is 
hard  and  strong,  and  is  used  for  tool  handles,    shuttles,    and 
fuel.     The  fruits  are  used  to  a  small  extent  for  food  and   in 
making  persimmon  beer. 

99.  The  persimmon   occurs   throughout   the  State.     It 
often  comes  up  along  the  edges  of  the   woods  and   in   fence 
corners. 

100.  White  ash,  FRAXINUS  AMERICANA.— The  leaves  are 
compound,  8  to  12  inches  long,  with  5  to  7  lance-shaped  leaf- 
lets.    The  branching  habit  is  opposite.     The  seed  is  provided 


Fig  III.     An  uneven-aged  stand  from  which  the  larger  trees  should  be  culled-    Par.  164 


19 

with  a  wing  that  aids  in  its  distribution. 

101.  The  wood  weighs  39  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.    It 
is  used  for  tool  handles,  wagon  tongues,  and  furniture.     For 
such  a  purpose  as  a  wagon  tongue  it  is  superior  to  hickory; 
for  it  has  sufficient  strength,    greater   stiffness,    and    less 
weight.    It  is  an  excellent  farm  timber. 

102.  The  white  ash  is  found  throughout  the  State,  com- 
monly on  moist  soil.    The  red,  green,  and   water  ashes  are 
also  found  in  the  State.     The  white  ash  was  selected  to  rep- 
resent the  genus. 

103.  Hardy  Catalpa,  CATALPA  SPECIOSA. -The  leaves 
are  heart-shaped,  10  to  12  inches  long  and  7  to  8  inches  wide, 
opposite  or  in  whorles  of  three.    The  showy  flowers  are  in 
panicles.    The  fruits  are  in  pods,  8  to  20  inches  long. 

104.  The  wood  weighs  26  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.     It 
is  very  durable  in  contact  with  the  ground.     Its  principal  use 
is  for  fence  posts. 

105.  'The  hardy  Catalpa  is  not  native  in  Georgia;  but  its 
introduction  on  a  large  scale  is  often  advocated.    It  is  claim- 
ed for  it  that  it  is  easily  propagated,  grows  rapidly,  and  lasts 
well  in  contact  with  the  ground.     These  claims  are  conceded. 
But  on  the  other  hand,  it  requires  skill  and  care  in   handling 
to  make  it  form  straight  trunks.     The  shoots  die  back  from 
the  ends  each  year;  and  the  new  growth  is  from   the   sides; 
this  tends  to  make  a  crooked  trunk.     It  requires  a  deep,  rich, 
moist  soil  to  make  a  rapid  growth.    There  are  small  patches 
of  ground  that  would  grow  Catalpa  to  advantage   that  are 
not  needed  for  other  crops;  but  speaking  generally,   the   soil 
that  is  needed  by  Catalpa  is  the  soil  that  ought  to  be  in  field 
crops.     And  there  are  many  native  trees   that  can   be  used 
for  the  same  purpose,  which  are  not  as  hard  to  care  for  and 


which  are  not  so  exacting  as  to  soil.  When  these  things  are 
taken  into  consideration,  it  would  seem  the  part  of  wisdom 
to  be  cautious  about  introducing  Catalpa  on  a  large  scale. 
To  plant  a  little  as  an  experiment  would  do  no  harm;  but  to 
plant  it  as  a  business  proposition  would  be  a  mistake. 

106.  The  common  Catalpa  is  native  in   Georgia;   but  it 
has  the  same  defects  as  the  Hardy  Catalpa  and  the  addition- 
al one  of  being  a  slower,  smaller  growth.     It  is  used   locally 
for  fence  posts. 

107.  Eucalypts. — The  introduction    of    the    Eucalypts 
from  Australia  is  sometimes   spoken  of.    They  have  been 
grown  successfully  in  California,    but  only  in   those   parts 
where  there  is  little  or  no  frost;  and   there  is   scarcely   any 
chance  of  growing  them  in  any   part  of  Georgia.     Even   in 
California  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  rate  of  growth 
has  been  exaggerated;  and  the  State  and  United  States  for- 
esters have  found  it  advisable  to  warn  the  public  against  too 
great  expectations  from  Eucalyptus  plantations. 

108.  Reference   literature. — "Manual   of   the  Trees  of 
North  America, "  Sargent. 

"Checklist  of  the  Forest  Trees  of   the   United   States/' 
Sudworth. 

109.  Topics  for  further  study,— 

(a)  Formation  of  knots, 

(b)  Branching  habits, 

(c)  Arrangement  of  leaves, 

(d)  Outlines  of  leaves, 

(e)  Identification  by  winter  buds, 

(f)  Identification  by  bark, 

(g)  Identification  by  grain. 


CHAPTER  II.    REPRODUCTION 

110.  If  an  oak  is  cut  down,  it  sprouts  again  from  the 
stump.     If  a  willow  switch  falls  onto  moist  ground  it  takes 
root  and  grows.     If  a  pine  seed  falls  on  a  favorable  spot,    it 
germinates  and  starts  a  new   tree.     These  ways  that  trees 
have  of  reproducing  themselves, — by   sprouts,    by  cuttings, 
and  by  seed, — may  be  used  in  securing  a  stand,  the  way  se- 
lected depending  partly  on  the  kind  of  tree  and  partly  on  the 
purpose  for  which  it  is   to  be  grown. 

Sedlion  1.    Sprouts 

111.  Of  the  kinds  discussed  in  the  last  chapter,   the 
walnut,  hickory,  willow,  cottonwood,  beech,  chestnut,    oaks, 
mulberry,  tulip-tree,  sweet  gum,  sycamore,  cherry,    locusts, 
maple,  basswood,  black  gum,  persimmon,  ash,    and   Catalpa 
sprout  from  the  stump;  and  stands  of  these  kinds  may  be 
reproduced  simply  by  cutting  down  the  old   stands,   making 
the  stumps  as  low  as  practicable. 

112.  Sprouts  grow  rapidly   for  a  few  years,   but  the 
growth  falls  off  later  on.    They  are  more  apt  to  die  in  the 
top— to  form  stag-heads — than  trees  of  seedling  origin;   and 
they  are  more  subject  to  decay  at  the  base. 

113.  Reproduction  by  sprouts  cannot  be  carried    on   in- 
definitely without  a  thinning  out  of  the  stand;   for  some  of 
the  stumps  lose  the  power  of  sprouting  vigorously.     Unless 
there  is  a  sprinkling  of  seedlings  from  time  to  time  to  take 
the  place  of  the  stumps  that  are  lost,  the  stand  deteriorates. 

114.  Reproduction   by   sprouts  does   well   enough    for 
some  purposes,  such  as  the  production  of  stakes,  posts,  poles, 
and  firewood;  but  is  not  recommended  where  a  good  quality 
of  saw-timber  is  desired.     And  generally  the  production   of 


22 

saw  timber  should  he  the  aim  of  the  owner;  for  plenty  of 
stakes,  posts,  poles,  and  firewood  can  be  gotten  from  limbs, 
tops,  and  thinnings.  When  thrifty  sprout  reproduction 
occurs  it  should  be  taken  care  of;  but  seedling  reproduction 
should  be  favored  where  there  is  a  chance  to  give  it  the 
advantage. 

Sedlion  2.     Cuttings 

115.  The  willow  and  cottonwood  are  easily   propagated 
by  cuttings,  and  this  method  is  preferable   for   these   two 
kinds.     They  are  rarely  wanted  except  to  protect  the   banks 
of  a  ditch  or  stream.     For  this  purpose  make  cuttings   about 
18  inches  long  and  stick  them  in  the  ground  along  the  bank 
in  two  rows,  4  feet  apart  and  4  feet  in  the  row,  the   cuttings 
in  the  second  row  being  opposite  the  spaces  in  the  first  row. 
One  or  two  of  the  top  buds  should  be  left  above  the   ground. 
A  damp  day  in  late  winter  is  the  best  time  for  the  work. 

Sedlion  3.    Seed 

116.  The  pine,  cypress,  and  juniper  do  not   sprout  and 
must  be  reproduced  by  seed;  and   seedling   reproduction   of 
most  of  the  kinds  that*  do  sprout  is  preferable.     Seedling  re- 
production may  be  secured  by  encouraging  the  production  of 
seed  and  giving  it  the  proper  conditions  for  germination  and 
growth;  or  it  may  be  secured  by  sowing  and  planting,  or   by 
a  combination  of  the   natural    methods    with    sowing   and 
planting. 

117.  The  ways  in  which  seeds  are  scattered  is  interest- 
ing.    The  pine  seed  is  provided  with  a  wing:  the  weight  of  the 
kernel  is  arranged  so  that  the  seed  whirls  around  as   it   de- 
scends through  tha  air;  this  delays   the   fall   and    gives   the 
seed  a  chance  to  sail  out  on  the  wind.     The   ash,    tuiip-trer-% 
and  sweet  gum  have  a  similar  device.     Acorns,  walnuts,  and 


23 

hickories  are  too  heavy  to  be  carried  by  the  wind,  but  their 
weight  and  shape  are  such  that  if  they  strike  a  limb  in  fall- 
ing, they  will  bounce  a  considerable  distance  and  roll  along 
the  ground.  The  birds  and  squirrels,  although  they  destroy 
many  seeds,  also  aid  in  scattering  them.  The  design  in  Na- 
ture seems  to  be  to  get  the  seeds  scattered  away  from  the 
parent  tree.  The  thoroughness  with  which  this  design  is 
carried  out  is  remarkable.  In  the  fall  of  1910  the  tulip-tree 
carpels  were  counted  on  7  plots  in  Clarke  county.  These 
plots  were  some  60  feet  from  a  tulip- tree:  but  when  an  aver- 
age was  struck,  it  was  found  that  the  carpels  ran  2,062,783 
to  the  acre;  and  since  each  carpel  contains  2  seeds,  the  seeds 
had  been  scattered  at  the  rate  of  4,125,566  to  the  acre.  And 
even  at  a  distance  of  600  feet  from  a  tree,  they  ran  between 
100,000  and  200,000  to  the  acre. 

118.  The  thoroughness  with  which  seeds  are  scattered 
is  further  illustrated  by  the  dense  stands  of  pine  and  other 
trees  that  came  up  in  abandoned  fields  during  and  after  the 
Civil  War. 

119.  Here  at  the  South  the  forest  will   nearly   always 
maintain  itself  and  come  again  when  cut  down,   if  given  a 
chance.     It  is  only  necessary  to  keep  the  fires  from   burning 
up  the  seeds  and  killing  the  seedlings.     The  problem  of  re- 
production by  seed  resolves  itself  into  the   problem  of  pro- 
tection from  fire. 

120.  It  may  happen,  however,  that  natural  seeding  is 
deficient  on  small  areas  or  that  the  owner  wants  a  particular 
kind  of  tree.     In  such  cases  sowing  or  planting  must  be  re- 
sorted to. 

121.  When  artificial  reproduction  must  be  used,    it  is 
better  to  sow  the  longleaf  and  Cuban  pines,  walnut,  hickory, 


24 

oaks,  and  locust  in  seed-spots  where  they  are  to  grow  than 
to  start  them  in  a  seed-bed  and  transplant  them  later  on. 
These  kinds  tend  to  form  a  long  tap-root  which  renders  their 
removal  from  the  seed-bed  to  the  permanent  site  laborious 
and  expensive.  It  is,  therefore,  better  to  sow  them  in  seed- 
spots. 

122.  Seed-spots  are  made  by   working   the   soil   lightly 
with  a  hoe  or  mattock  over  a  spot  about  a  foot  across.    The 
seeds  are  sown  3  to  4  to  the  spot  and   covered   about  twice 
their  depth.     The  spots  should  be  about  6   feet  apart  each 
way.    A  convenient  way  to  secure  uniformity  is   to   set  tall 
stakes  as  guides  for  the  rows,    moving  them   at  each   turn 
across  the  patch.     The  distance  in  the  row   may  be   paced. 
On  slopes  the  distance  in  the  row  may  be  shortened  to  4  feet, 
and  the  distance  between  rows  may  be  increased  to  9  feet, 
the  rows  following  around  the  slope   like  cotton   rows  in   a 
terraced  field.     This  method   affords  more  of  a   barrier  to 
washing,  and  it  gives  the  same  amount  of  space,   36   square 
feet  to  each  tree. 

123.  The  best  season  to  sow  seed-spots  is  in   the   fall. 
This  does  away  with  the  trouble  of  keeping  the  seeds  over 
winter.     Fail  spots  should  be  reseeded  the  following  fall. 

124  Sowing  in  seed- spots  costs  very  little.  The  labor 
of  preparing  the  spots  and  sowing  should  not  exceed  $1.50 
an  acre.  A  good  hand  can  prepare  and  sow  from  three- 
fourths  to  an  acre  a  day.  The  cost  of  the  seeds  depends  on 
the  kind,  but  it  is  generally  small  For  instance,  a  pound  of 
yellow  locust  seed  may  be  bought  for  40  cents  and  it  will  sow 
5  acres. 

125.  Such  trees  as  the  shortleaf  and  loblolly  pines,  the 
beech,  chestnut,  tulip-tree,  basswood,  ash,  and  Catalpa  may 


25 

be  sown  in  seed-spots,  but  the  surer  way  is  to  sow  them  in 
a  seed-bed  and  transfer  them  to  the  permanent  site  as  seed- 
lings of  one  or  two  year's  growth.  A  seed-bed  may  be  made 
in  any  light,  mellow  soil,  such  as  a  vegetable  garden.  The 
soil  should  be  thoroughly  worked,  as  for  vegetables.  The 
seeds  should  be  sown  in  drills,  some  2  or  3  feet  apart,  and 
lacking  the  thickness  of  a  seed  of  touching  in  the  drill.  They 
should  be  covered  to  twice  their  depth. 

126.  As  in  sowing  seed-spots,    the  trouble  of  keeping 
the  seed  over  winter  is  avoided,  if  the  sowing  is  done  in  the 
fall;  and  the  germination  is  usually  better  for  seeds  sown  in 
the  fall  than  in  the  spring. 

127.  The  seed-bed  should  be  kept  mellow  and  free  from 
weeds.     Light  working  with  a  plow  or  hoe,  followed  by  pul- 
verizing with  a  rake   is  the   best  cultivation.     Baking  and 
drying  should  be  prevented,  and  lath  screens  are  often  used 
for  this  purpose;  out  they  are  an  additional  expense  and  they 
interfere  with  working  the   beds.    The  experience  of  the 
writer  has  led  him  to  abandon  the  screens  and   rely   wholly 
on  pulverizing  with  a  rake,  or  the    "dust  mulch"   as  it  is 
called,  to  keep  the  moisture  near  the  surface. 

128.  In  seasons  of  drouth  it  mav   be  advisable  to  irri- 
gate.    If  this  is  done,  the  ground  should  be  thoroughly  wet; 
and  it  should  be  worked  when  dry  enough,  as  after  a  rain. 
A    thorough    wetting     followed   by    a     working    will     do 
good;  but  frequent  sprinklings  may  do  more  harm  than  good. 

129.  The  length  of  time  that   the   seedlings   remain   in 
the  seed-bed  depends  on  their  rate  of  growth.     Some  of  them 
like  the  tulip-tree,  are  large  enough  to   move  in   one  year; 
but  others,  like  the   shortleaf  pine,    require   two  years  to 
reach  a  convenient  size. 


26 

130.  The  roots  of  seedlings  should   not  be  allowed   to 
dry  out  in  moving  them  from  the  seed-bed  to  the  permanent 
site.     To  prevent  drying  the  roots  should  be  dipped  in  a  pud- 
dle immediately  upon  being  taken  from  the  ground.     A  pud- 
dle is  made  by  stirring  soil  into  a   tub  until  a  thin  mud  is 
formed.     The  puddle  should  be  stirred  again  before  each 
bundle  of  seedlings  is  dipped.     When  the  seedlings  are  pud- 
dled they  are  placed  in  a  bucket  or  basket  and  covered   with 
a  damp  cloth  or  some  damp  leaves.    They  are  then  ready  to 
be  taken  to  the  permanent  site. 

131.  When  a  hole  of  convenient  size  has   been  opened 
with  a  mattock,  a  plant  is  taken  from  the  basket  and  held  in 
place  with  one  hand  while  the  soil  is  drawn  about  the  roots 
with  the  other.     Care  should  be  taken  not  to  get  any  sod  or 
leaves  next  the  roots.     When  the  soil  has  been  drawn   about 
the  roots,  it  is  firmly  packed  with  the  heel,  to  get  it  in   close 
contact  with  the  roots.     The  soil  is  settled  against  the  roots 
of  fruit,  shade,  and  ornamental  trees  by  the    use  of   water; 
but  in  forest  planting  the  use  of   water  is   impractical,    and 
packing  with  the  heel  is  used  instead. 

132.  As  in   making  seed-spots,    the  planting  may   be 
made  uniform  by  using  stakes  to   guide  on.     The  distance 
recommended  is  also  the  same,  6  by  6  feet,  or  4  by  9, 

133.  Seedlings  may  be  removed  from  the  seed-bed  from 
November  to  April.     February  is  the  best  time;  for  they  are 
then  not  exposed  to  the  severe  cold  of  winter  and  they  have 
time  to  become  adjusted  to  their  new   surroundings   before 
the  hot,  dry  weather  sets  in. 

134.  Topics  for  further  study.— 

(a)  Effect  of  high  stumps  on  soroutin^, 

(b)  Age  to  which  sprouting  power  is  retained, 


27 

(c)  Relative  sprouting  power  of  different  kinds, 

(d)  Nature's  methods  of  dissemination, 

(e)  Germination  percentages, 

(f )  Effect  of  forest  fires  on  seeds, 

(g)  Effect  of  forest  fires  on  seedlings. 


CHAPTER  III.      PROTECTION 

135.  Stands  of  trees  have  enemies.     Among  these  are 
fungi,  insects,  and  fires. 

Sedtion  1.    Fungi 

136.  Sometimes  low  forms  of  plant  life,    called   fungi, 
grow  on  the  inside  of  trees  and  feed  on  their  wood,    causing 
decay.     Unless  these  plants  bear  fruit  we  may  not  know  of 
their  presence.     Their  fruiting  bodies  are   sometimes   called 
toad  stools  or  frog  stools.     One  common  form  is  small  at  the 
top  and  grows  larger  from  year  to  year  by  the  addition  of  a 
layer  at  the  bottom.     If  the  under  side  of  one  of  these  is  exam- 
ined it  will  he  found  to  be  full  of  small  holes,  from  which  the 
spores  of  the  fungus  are  discharged.     The  spores  are  blown 
about  in  the  air;  and  if  one  finds  lodgment  in  a  knot-hole  or 
other  place  where  the  bark  is  broken,    it  may   develop   and 
grow  into  the   tree.     Fungi   may   also  spread   through   the 
ground  by  filaments  from  an  infested  tree  reaching  the  roots 
or  butt  of  another  tree. 

137.  Little  may  be   done  towards  protecting   a   stand 
from   fungous  diseases;  because  in  our  present  stage  of  de- 
velopment the  timber  crop  is  not  valuable   enough   to   allow 
the  expenditure  that  an  active  campaign  against  fungi  would 
involve.     The  most  that  may  be  done  is  to  keep   the   timber 
in  a  thrifty,  healthy  condition  by  the  prevention  of  fires  and 
the  removal  of  diseased  trees. 

Section  2     Insects 

138.  The  wood,  inner  bark,  and  the  foliage  of  trees  are 
attacked  by  insects.     The  small,    shot-like  holes   sometimes 
seen  in  red  oak  wood  are  the  result  of  insect    attack   on   the 
wood;  they  are  the  passages  out  by  an  insect,  and  they   de- 


29 

tract  from  the  usefulness  of  the  wood. 

139.  The  pine  bark  beetle  is  an  example  of   the  insects 
that  attack  the  inner  bark.     It  makes  galleries  in  the  inner 
bark,  which  may  girdle  the  tree  and  cause  its  death.     In  the 
adult  stage  this  insect  is  about  three-eights  of  an  inch   long; 
it  is  brown  in  color,  sometimes  nearly  black.     It  can  fly   for 
some  distance,  and  spreads  from  place  to  place  in  this   way. 
Summer  cutting  in  pine  woods  should  be  avoided  as  far  as 
practicable,  because  the  odor  of  the  resin  attracts  the  bee- 
tles to  the  neighborhood  and  often  starts  an  outbreak  that  it 
is  hard  to  check.     Sometimes  a  tree  is  struck   by   lightning, 
the  beetles  are  attracted  to  it,  and  they  spread  to  surround- 
ing trees.     Its  spread  may  be  controlled  by  cutting  and  re- 
moving the  trees  while  the  insects  are  in  them.     Their  pres- 
ence is  shown  by  the  fading  of  the  foliage.     To  do  any  good 
they  must  be  removed  before  the  beetles  are  gone,    that  is 
before  the  foliage   has  turned   brown.     The  infested   trees 
should  be  cut  during  December,  January,  and  February.     If 
the  trees  are  large  enough  for  saw-logs,  they  should  be  saw- 
ed at  once,  or  be  barked  at  once  to  expose   the  insects.     If 
they  are  used  as  firewood,  they  should   be  used  before  the 
spring  weather  comes  on,  or  some  of  the  insects  may  escape. 
The  larger  limbs,  if  not  used  as  firewood,    and   the   smaller 
brush  should  be  piled  around  the  stumps  and  burned. 

140.  The  insects  that  prey  on  the  foliage  are  also  inju- 
rious.    If  the  foliage  of  pine   trees  is  destroyed,    they  will 
die.     The  broad-leaf  trees  are  hardier;  and  they   will  stand 
two  or  three  defoliations  before  they  succumb.     But  a  les- 
ening  of  the  foliage,  although  it  may  not  result  in  the  death 
of  the  tree,  retards  its  growth,  lowers  its  vitality,    and   les- 
sens its  resistance  to  future  insect  or  fungous  attacks. 


30 

141.  Aside  from  the  measures  which  may  be  taken  to 
prevent  the  spread  of  the  pine  bark  beetle,    there  is  little 
that  the  owner  can  do  to  combat  the  attacks  of  insects.    He 
can,  however,  do  something  by  way  of  prevention.     If  the 
stands  are  kept  in  a  thrifty,  healthy  condition,  they  are  less 
liable  to  attack  than  if  allowed  to  become  unthrifty;  and  the 
removal  of  tops,  dead,   and  dying  trees,   if  practicable,  is 
recommended,    for    they    furnish   a  breeding  ground   for 
insects. 

Sedtion  3.    Fires 

142.  Fire  is  the  worst  enemy  of  the  forest.    It  destroys 
the  seeds  that  are  lying  in  the  litter  ready  to  germinate.     It 
kills  the  seedlings  and  saplings   that   would  form  future 
stands.    It  sometimes  kills  the  larger  trees;  or  if  it  does  not 
kill,  it  injures  them;  the  roots  that  are  near  the  surface  are 
scorched;  and  the  bark  is  killed  in  patches  about  the  bases 
of  the  trees.    Even  when  these  patches  are  healed  over  they 
leave  bad  places  in  the  lumber  that  lower  its  quality  and  value. 
Often  several  feet  of  the  b©ttom  logs  in  burned  woods  must 
be  cut  off  and  thrown  away  because  of  old  fire  scars. 

143.  The  litter  and  humus  are  burned  up  and  the  soil  is 
impoverished.    This  retards  the  growth  of  the  trees,   and  it 
lowers  their  vitality,  so  that  they  are  more  liable  to  the  at- 
tacks of  fungi  and  insects. 

144.  Forest  fires  are  sometimes  followed  by  an  increas- 
ed proportion  of  scrub  oak,  sumuch,   and  other  inferior  or 
worthless  trees;  and  it  may  take  years  for  the  more  useful 
trees  to  crowd  out  this  undesirable  growth. 

145.  Some  farmers  say  that  they  cannot  protect  their 
woodlands  from  fire.    Speaking  generally,  these  are  the  ones 
that  have  not  tried.     Woods    can    be  protected  from  fire. 


31 

The  protection  cannot  be  made  absolute,  just  as  the  protec- 
tion of  town  property  is  not  absolute.  In  spite  of  the  most 
stringent  building  regulations  and  trained  fire  departments, 
fires  continue  to  occur  in  town.  But  the  risk  to  town  prop- 
erty has  been  reduced  to  a  very  small  quantity;  in  some 
cases  it  is  calculated  to  be  less  than  three  chances  out  of  a 
thousand.  In  places  where  an  effort  has  been  made  to  pro- 
tect woods  from  fire,  it  has  been  found  that  the  risk  can  be 
reduced  to  a  smaller  quantity  than  in  the  case  of  town  prop- 
erty; in  some  cases  it  is  calculated  to  be  less  than  one  chance 
in  a  thousand. 

146.  The  protection  of  farm  woodlands  from  fire  is  a  sim- 
ple matter.  It  is  a  common  practice  when  working  in  the 
woods  in  cold  weather  to  build  a  fire  to  warm  the  hands  and 
feet  by.  The  fire  should  be  placed  where  it  will  not  spread; 
and  it  should  be  put  out  before  leaving.  When  a  field  ad- 
joining the  woods  is  brushed  out,  the  brush  should  be  piled 
far  enough  away  to  prevent  setting  the  woods  afire  when  it 
is  burned.  When  a  field  is  burned  off  to  prepare  for  plowing, 
if  it  adjoins  the  woods,  a  few  furrows  should  be  run  between 
it  and  the  woods  before  the  fire  is  set.  All  tenants  and 
hands  on  the  place  should  be  made  to  turn  out  and  help  fight 
a  fire  in  the  woods  should  one  by  any  chance  get  started. 
This  will  tend  to  make  them  careful  in  handling  fire. 

147.  Where  woods  join  the  woods  or  fields  of  a  neigh- 
bor or  lie  along  a  railroad,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  separate  them 
by  a  fire  line.  A  fire  line  is  a  strip  about  20  feet  wide  from 
which  the  dry  brush,  litter,  and  grass  have  been  removed. 
It  is  made  by  raking  paths  about  3  feet  broad  on  either  side 
of  the  proposed  line  and  burning  the  area  between  the  paths. 
The  burning  should  be  done  when  the  wind  is  low  and  when 


32 

there  is  enough  moisture  in  the  woods  to  render  easy  the  con- 
trol of  the  fire.  Conditions  are  so  varying  that  it  is  hard  to 
arrive  at  an  average  cost  of  making  a  fire  line.  With  inex- 
perienced hands  and  unfavorable  conditions  the  cost  may 
amount  to  $20  a  mile;  with  experienced  hands  and  favorable 
conditions  it  should  not  exceed  $10  a  mile.  They  should  be 
burned  off  each  year.  There  is  usually  a  good  deal  of  brush 
and  a  good  many  snags  in  the  way  of  raking  the  paths  the 
first  time;  so  that  the  cost  is  less  after  the  first  burning.  In 
the  fall,  when  most  of  the  leaves  are  down  but  not  yet  very 
dry,  is  the  best  time  of  year  to  burn  a  fire  line.  A  fire  line 
may  not  stop  all  fires;  but  it  stops  ordinary  fires,  and  it 
checks  even  the  most  severe  ones  long  enough  to  get  them 
under  control. 

148.  It  is  the  practice  in   some  parts  of  the  State  to 
burn  off  the  woods  to  improve  the  pasturage.     It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  this  improves  the  pasturage  in   the  long  run. 
Some  farmers  claim  that  woods  that  are  not  burned  over 
have  more  grass  in  them;  and  they  have  quit  burning  them. 
Even  granting  that  burning  does  improve  the   pasturage, 
when  the  injury  to  the  woods  is  reckoned  in,  it  makes  an  ex- 
pensive improvement.    The  cost  is  hard  to  estimate  exactly; 
but  the  indications  are  that  it  would  be  cheaper  to  seed 
down  a  piece  of  land  to  good  grasses  than  to  burn  the  woods 
for  the  sake  of  the  wild  pasture  that  follows  in  the  wake  of 
a  forest  fire. 

149.  The  pine  woods  in  South   Georgia  are   burned   to 
protect  the  turpentine  boxes.     If  the  cup  and  gutter   system 
of  turpentining  is  used  there  are  no   boxes   to  protect,    and 
the  main   reason   for  burning  is  done   away   with.     Even 
where  the  boxes  are  used  the  same  amount  of  money  spent 


33 

on  fire  lines  and  patrol  would  give  protection. 

150.  This  question  of  forest  fires  is  not  wholly  an  indi- 
vidual question.     It  is  partly  a  community  question;  for  the 
rights  of  many  persons  are  involved.     If  an  owner  sets  his 
woods  afire  the  fire  may  spread  to  neighboring  woods,  or  it 
may  burn  up  his  neighbor's  fences,  fodder  stacks,  and  build- 
ings.    Fire  is  in  a  class  with  poisons  and  explosives;    and  if 
it  is  used,  it  should  be  used  carefully  and  with  reference  to 
the  rights  of  others. 

151.  Topics  for  further  study; — 

(a)  Relation  between  broken  places  in  the  bark 
and  fungous  attack, 

(b)  Part  played  by  birds  in  insect  suppression, 

(c)  Effect  of  forest  fires  on  the  bases  of  mature 
trees, 

(d)  Effect  of  fires  on  turpentine  boxes, 

(e)  Effect  of  fires  on  the  composition  of  stands, 

(f)  Destruction  of  birds  nests  and  young  birds 
by  fires. 


CHAPTER  IV.    THINNINGS 

152.  Thinning  is  the  removal  of  some  of  the  trees  from 
a  stand  for  the  benefit  of  the  trees  that  remain.    To  under- 
stand thinning  it  is  necessary  to  review  the  development  of 
a  stand.    Suppose  that  a  young  stand  is  recently  started, 
and  that  the  trees  are  6  feet  apart  each  way,  or  1210  to   the 
acre.     When  the  stand  is  about  ten  years  old    the    side 
branches  of  the  trees  will  begin  to  touch,  the  ground  will  be 
shaded;  and  the  stand  has  become  what  the  foresters  call  a 
"closed  stand/'    As  soon  as  the  stand  is  closed  the  trees  be- 
gin to  crowd  one  another.    The  crowding  results  in   the 
dying  of  the  lower  side  limbs  and  in  an  increased  height 
growth.     Some  of  the  trees  get  ahead  of  the  others,  and  be- 
fore many  years  they  become  separated  into  classes.     These 
classes  are  called  (1)  dominant,  (2)    intermediate,    (3)    sup- 
pressed, and  (4)  dead.     The  names  indicate  the  condition  of 
the  trees  in  the  classes  to  which  they   are   applied.     By   the 
time  the  stand  is  fifty  years  old  probably  not  more  than  500 
out  of  the  original  1210  trees  will  be  alive.     The  others  have 
been  shaded  to  death  by  their  stronger  neighbors;  and  some 
of  thoso  that  are  still  alive  will  succumb  within  a  few  years. 
If,  as  often  occurs  in   natural   seeding,    there   are  several 
thousand  trees  at  the  start  the  crowding  will  be  greater  and 
Lhe  results  will  be  more  marked. 

153.  A  moderate  crowding  is  beneficial  to  the  stand. 
It  causes  the  trees  to  grow  up  tall  and  straight  and   to   shed 
their  side  limbs.    Long,  clean,   straight  logs  that  saw  out 
clear  lumber  are  the  result  of  crowded  stands.     On  the  other 
hand,  the  struggle  in  a  closed  stand  may  become   too  fierce; 
and  it  may  react  in  a  harmful  way  on  the  stand.     The  stems 


35 

may  become  so  slender  that  they  cannot  stand  upright,  and 
the  tops  may  become  so  restricted  that  they  no  longer  prop- 
erly perform  their  functions.  By  the  removal  of  some  of 
the  trees  the  beneficial  influences  of  the  struggle  may  be  re- 
newed from  time  to  time  and  the  harmful  effects  may  be 
avoided.  In  other  words,  thinning  prevents  the  stimulative 
competition  from  becoming  a  destructive  competition. 

154.  Thinnings  are  influenced  by  market  conditions. 
If  there  is  a  market  for  small  material,  a  young  stand  may 
be  thinned  earlier  and  the  thinning  may  be  repeated  oftener 
than  when  there  is  a  market  for  onlv  the  larger  trees. 
A  young  stand  may  be  thinned  as  soon  as  the  material 
to  be  removed  has  reached  such  a  size  that  its  sale  will 
pay  for  its  removal;  and  it  should  not  be  thinned  again 
until  the  material  to  be  removed  has  accumulated  in  suf- 
ficient quantity  to  yield  a  profit,  or  at  least  to  pay  for 
its  removal.  If  this  rule  is  followed,  the  improvement  of 
the  stand  which  results  from  the  thinning  will  be  a  net  gain. 
In  some  cases  a  thinning  might  be  made  even  at  a  slight  ex- 
pense and  still  be  profitable  in  the  end;  but  it  is  safer  to  fol- 
low the  rule  given  above.  Where  it  is  practicable  to  thin  in 
this  State,  the  application  of  the  rule  would  mean  a  moderate 
thinning  when  the  stand  is  25  or  30  years  old  and  a  repeti- 
tion of  it  every  10  or  15  years  thereafter  until  maturity  is 
reached.  Farmers  are  in  a  better  position  to  practice  thin- 
ning than  some  other  classes  of  owners;  because  there  is 
nearlv  always  a  demand  on  the  the  farm  for  firewood,  posts, 
poles,  and  other  small  material.  Even  where  there  is  no 
outside  market  for  small  material,  thinnings  may  be  prac- 
ticed on  the  farm  to  the  extent  of  the  small  material  con- 
sumed on  the  farm. 


36 

155.  The  classes  into  which  trees  become  separated   in 
the  course  of  their  struggle  with  one  another  help  to  deter- 
mine the  trees  to  be  removed.     A  moderate  thinning  in- 
volves the  removal  of  the  intermediate  trees  that  are  in- 
terfering with  the  development  of  the  dominant  trees. 
The  stand  should  not  be  opened  up  too  much.     If  it  is  opened 
too  much  and  too  much  light  is  admitted,  an  undesirable  un- 
dergrowth of  grass,  weeds,  briers,  and   shrubs   may  result, 
or  it  may  bring  on  reproduction  before  it  is   wanted.     Kinds 
that  are  liable  to  windfall,  like  the  pine,  should  not  be   heav- 
ily thinned,  or  windfall  may  occur.     But  while   care   should 
be  taken  not  to  thin  too  heavily,  the  stand   must   be  opened 
up  enough  to  influence   its  growth.     The   cover  should   be 
broken,  but  it  should  not  be  broken  to  such  an  extent  that  it 
will  take  more  than  2  or  3  years  for  it  to  close  again. 

156.  Whether  the  suppressed  and  dead  trees  should  be 
removed  depends  principally  on  whether  they  contain  enough 
wood  to  make  their  removal  worth  while.     Some  stimulation 
may  result  from  the  removal  of  the   suppressed   trees;   but 
most  of  them  are  so  far  behind  the  dominant  trees  that  their 
presence  or  absence  has  little  effect  one  way   or  another  on 
the  development  of  the  final  stand.     Yet  it  often  pays  to  re- 
move some  of  the  suppressed  and  dead  trees  while  the   thin- 
ning is  in  progress,  although  it  would  not  pay  to  go  into   the 
stand  for  the  suppressed  and  dead  trees  alone,  except  in  ex- 
traordinary cases.     And,  on  the  general  principle  of  cleaning 
a  stand  of  all  the  useless  material  which  might  invite  disease  or 
increase  the  risk  from  fire,  it  is  sometimes  expedient  to  remove 
dead  and  suppressed  trees  while  thinning  is  going  on  and   it 
can  be  done  without  extra  cost.     If,  on  the  other  hand,    the 
cover  composed  of  dominant  and  intermediate  trees  is  not 


37 

enough  to  keep  the  ground  sufficiently  shaded,  it  is  some- 
times advisable  to  keep  the  suppressed  trees  or  a  portion  of 
them  to  shade  the  ground. 

157.  The  proportion  of  the  volume  of  the  material  re- 
moved to  the  volume  of  the  stand  may  serve  as  a  check  in 
making  thinnings.     A  moderate  thinning  would  fall  between 
10  and  20  per  cent  of  the  volume  of  the  stand.    If,   for  ex- 
ample, the  stand  runs  about  30  cords  to  the  acre,  the  amount 
to  be  taken  out  would  fall  between  3  and  6  cords.    If  it  falls 
below  3  cords,  the  indication  is  that  the  thinning  is  too  light 
and  that  more  should  be  taken.     If  it  goes  above  6  cords,   it 
indicates  that  the  thinning  is  too  heavy  and  that  less  should 
be  taken. 

158.  If  the  stand  is  composed  of  several  kinds  of  trees, 
there  may  be  a  choice  among  the  kinds  as  well  as  among  the 
individuals  of  the  same  kind.    The  desirability  of  a  kind  de- 
pends on  its  market  value,  its  usefulness  on  the  tarm,   its 
habit  of  growth,  and  its  adaptability   to  the  soil.     In  thin- 
ning the  more  desirable  kinds  should  be  given  the  preference 
over  the  less  desirable,  when  it  is  possible  to  show  a  prefer- 
ence.    For  example,  a  black  jack  and  a  white  oak  are  stand- 
ing side  by  side  and  one  must  be  removed  for  the  good  of 
the  stand;  the  black  jack  should  be  removed  and  the  white 
oak  should  be  left. 

159.  While  thinning,  strictly  speaking,  is  the  removal 
of  some  trees  for  the  betterment  of  the   stand,   it  may   be 
combined  with  other  work.     When,  for  example,  a  stand  is 
uneven-aged,  a  thinning  among  the  younger  trees  may  go 
hand  in  hand  with  harvesting  the  mature  trees;  and  the  cost 
of  each  operation  may  be  reduced  by  both  being  done  at  one 
time.     But  for  clearness  of  thinking  the  two  operations 


38 

should  be  kept  separate  in  mind,  although  they  may  be  com- 
bined in  the  woods. 

160.  Thinnings  bring  important  results.    They   lessen 
the  danger  from  fungus  and  insect  attack  and   from  fire. 
By  taking  out  the  inferior  kinds  of  trees  and  giving  the  bet- 
ter kinds  a  chance,  they  increase  the  proportion  of  the  bet- 
ter kinds.     By  keeping  the  rate  of  growth  even,   they  pro- 
duce an  even  grade  of  lumber.    By  keeping  up  the  stimula- 
tive competition  they  hasten  the  maturity  of  the  final  crop; 
or  to  put  it  in  other  words,  they  increase   the  output  in  a 
given  period  of  time.    And,   by  the  removal  of  unsightly 
trees  and  increasing  the  thrift  of  the  stand,   they  improve 
the  appearance  of  the  woods.    This  last  may  be  of  consider- 
able importance  if  the  grove  happens  to  be  near  the  farm 
house. 

161.  The  influence  of  thinning  on   growth  is  felt  the 
next  growing  season,  when  the  trees  begin  to  respond  to  the 
increased  amount  of  light.     It  is  not  making  an  improve- 
ment that  it  will  take  a  life-time  to   get  the  benefit  of,   as 
many  mistakenly   suppose;  it  is  making  an  improvement 
which  pays  for  itself  and  the  benefit  of  which  begins  within 
the  year. 


CHAPTER  V.    CUTTING  MATURE  TIMBER 

162.  In  general  it  is  better  to  cut  the  mature  timber, 
and  also  to  thin,  during  the  winter  months;  for  timber  cut  in 
the  winter  months  seasons  better  than  timber  cut  in  the  sum- 
mer; and  summer  cutting  in  pine  stands  increases  the  liabil- 
ity of  attack  by  bark-beetles. 

163.  In  felling  large  timber  and  cutting  it  into  logs  the 
cross-cut  saw  is  preferable  to  the  ax.    The  saw  saves  the  ax- 
kerf  and  it  saves  time. 

164.  To  cut  the  mature  timber  with  reference  to  repro- 
duction is  not  as  important  as  in  some  other  States.     It  was 
pointed  out  in  Chapter  2  that  the  exclusion   of  fires  is  the 
most  important  factor  in  securing   reproduction.     However, 
it  is  sometimes  possible  to  aid  reproduction  through  the  con- 
trol of  cutting;  and  when  this  can  be  done  without  much  ex- 
tra cost,  it  should  be  done.     For  instance,  in  an  uneven-aged 
stand  the  mature  trees  may  be  thrown  away  from  or  to  one 
side  of  the  clumps  of  younger  growth.    Some  breakage  is 
unavoidable,  but  a  little  care  will  reduce  it. 

165.  If  the  stand  is  even-aged  it  is  better  to  cut  clear 
than  to  cull.    The  smaller  trees  have  been  stunted,  and  they 
will  not  take  on  a  thrifty  growth  when  the  larger  trees  are 
removed,  and  they  interfere   with  the  young  sprouts  and 
seedlings  that  come  up  under  them.    Seedling  reproduction 
of  an  even-aged  stand  may  be  favored  by  cutting  soon  after 
a  heavy  seed-year  of  the  kind  that  is  most  desired,   or  by 
leaving  2  or  3  trees  to  the  acre  of  the  most  desired  kind  to 
act  as  seed  trees. 

166.  The  amount  of  timber  that  is  cut  from  a  forest 
should  be  regulated  so  that  the  stock  in  the  forest  will  not  be 


40 

exhausted.  One  way  of  regulating  the  cut  is  by  area.  If 
there  are  250  acres  in  timber,  and  it  takes  about  60  years  for 
the  trees  to  reach  the  required  size,  that  is,  to  reach  maturi- 
ty, then  about  4  and  a  quarter  acres  could  be  cut  over  each 
year,  or  if  more  convenient  the  cut  for  2  or  3  years  could  be 
made  in  one  year;  but  the  area  cut  over  should  average  about 
4  and  a  quarter  acres  a  year. 

167.  Another  way  to  regulate  the  cut  is  by  volume.  On 
a  place  in  Middle  Georgia  the  estimate  shows  a  stock  of 
1,529,000  board  feet,  and  as  it  takes  about  60  years  for  the 
trees  to  reach  maturity,  the  amount  which  it  is  safe  to  cut 
may  be  found  by  the  formula;— 

Stock 

=====  =  annual  cut;  or 

Rotation 


1,529,000 

=  50,966  feet. 


30 


2 

Then  it  would  be  safe  to  cut  about  50  thousand  feet  a  year; 
and  if  more  convenient  2  or  3  years  cutting,  or  100,000  or 
150,000,  may  be  taken  out  in  one  year,  provided  that  the 
average  is  not  more  than  50,000  a  year.  The  stand  should 
be  estimated  at  intervals;  and  if  the  amount  of  timber  is 
greater  or  less,  the  cut  will  change  correspondingly.  If  af- 
ter 10  years,  the  stand  mentioned  above  is  estimated  again; 
and  it  is  found  to  contain  1,200,000  feet,  the  cut  should  be 
reduced  to  40,000;  if  the  new  estimate  is  2,000,000,  the  cut 
may  be  increased  to  66,000.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  formula 
is  self  corrective.  The  chances  for  mistakes  are  in  deter- 


41 

mining  the  time  that  it  takes  to  produce  trees  of  cutting 
size  and  in  estimating  the  timber. 

168.  The  age  at  which  the  trees  reach  the  cutting  size 
can  be  gotten  by  counting  the  rings  on  the  stumps  of  several 
of  the  most  important  kinds  that  compose  the  stand.    For 
the  tract  used  as  an  illustration  above  where  the  stand  is 
mostly  loblolly  pine,  60  years  is  long  enough  to  allow  for  a 
rotation.    In  the  case  of  longleaf  pine,   it  would  hardly  be 
safe  to  allow  less  than  100.     But  it  is  best  to  consider  each 
tract  separately,  with  reference  to  local  conditions  of  market 
and  growth. 

169.  The  stand  in  board  feet  may  be  obtained  by  esti- 
mating the  timber  on  several  acres,  striking  an  average,  and 
multiplying  by  the  number  of  acres.    The  sample  acres 
should  be  carefully  chosen  to  insure  that  they  represent  the 
stand.    The  chances  for  mistakes  are  lessened  if  the  sample 
acres  are  in  the  shape  of  strips.    A  compass  line  may  be  fol- 
lowed and  the  trees  estimated  for  33  feet  on  each  side  of  the 
line.    This  gives  a  slice  66  feet  wide  through  the  timber; 
and  when  such  a  strip  is  660  feet  long,  it  represents  an  acre. 
A  pocket  compass,  a  surveyor's  chain,  a  note  book,  and  a  log 
rule  are  needed  for  the  work.    The  direction  of  the  line  is 
found  by  the  compass,  then  the  chain  is  brought  along  this 
line;  the  trees  are  estimated  on  each  side  of  the  chain.    If 
there  is  doubt  as  to  whether  to  include  a  tree  standing  near 
the  edge  of  the  strip,  the  distance,  33  feet,   may  be  paced, 
Practice  soon  does  away  with  the  necessity  of  pacing  unless 
the  timber  is  very  thick.    When  the  trees  have  been  estima- 
ted on  both  sides  of  the  chain,  the  direction  is  found  again, 
the  chain  is  brought  forward,  and  the  process  is  repeated. 
When  the  edge  of  the  tract  is  reached  an  offset  is  made  and 


42 

then  a  strip  is  run  back  parallel  to  the  first,  as  indicated  on 
the  diagram.  If  the  long  chain,  66-foot,  is  used,  10  chains 
make  an  acre;  if  the  short  chain,  33-foot,  is  used,  20 
chains  make  an  acre. 

170.  There  are  several  log  rules  in  use.  Most  of  them 
were  made  with  Northern  conditions  in  view.  The  follow- 
ing rule  has  been  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  getting  a 
rule  adapted  to  the  conditions  found  in  the  average  small 
mill  in  Georgia.  It  is  based  on  the  following  suppositions;— 
that  the  saw-kerf  is  a  quarter  of  an  inch;  that  the  boards 
are  an  inch  thick,  the  smallest  3  inches  wide  and  the  largest 
12;  and  that  the  logs  are  normally  sound  and  straight.  A 
special  allowance  must  be  made  for  hollow  and  very  crooked 
logs.  The  height  to  which  the  logs  will  run  is  estimated. 
A  ten-foot  pole  set  against  the  tree  is  a  great  help  in  estima- 
ting heights;  for  it  gives  a  point  for  comparison.  After  a 
little  practice  the  pole  may  be  set  aside.  When  the  distance 
from  the  ground  to  the  point  where  the  tree  ceases  to  be 
usable  has  been  estimated  and  the  height  of  the  stump  de- 
ducted, the  trunk  is  divided  into  logs.  If,  for  instance,  the 
usable  part  of  the  tree  is  33  feet  long,  it  will  make  two 
16-foot  logs.  The  next  step  is  to  estimate  the  diameters  of 
the  top  ends  of  the  logs.  A  steel  square  is  helpful  in  esti- 
mating diameters.  Hold  it  in  one  hand  at  breast  height 
with  the  tongue  and  blade  against  the  tree;  then  a  lath  or 
straight  stick  held  in  the  other  hand  laid  against  the  tree 
parallel  to  the  tongue  will  indicate  the  diameter  on  the  blade. 
With  the  diameter  at  breastheight  known,  the  diameter  at 
the  tops  of  the  logs  can  be  estimated  by  comparison.  In  a 
short  time  the  eye  becomes  accustomed  to  estimating  diam- 
eters without  the  use  of  the  square.  The  rule  is  for  diame- 


43 

ters  inside  the  bark,  so  an  allowance  must  be  made  for  bark. 
An  inch  is  enough  allowance  to  make  for  most  kinds  of  tim- 
ber. Suppose  in  the  case  mentioned  the  top  diameter  0f  the 
first  log  is  15  inches  and  the  second  is  13;  then  they  should 
be  reduced  to  14  and  12.  The  next  step  is  to  record  the 
logs  in  a  note  book  in  any  convenient  form.  At  the  end  of 
the  work  in  the  woods  the  logs  are  scaled  by  the  rule  and  the 
totals  run  up. 


IB 


*  IS  11  15 


3     1 


§  |g 


I 


Is  Is  li 


a  fa 

'««      '  ^ 


I  bS       1C       I  00 


5    IS   1^    IS    Is    |. 


IIS    18 


-^     Ita     I  be 


S    IS    15 


-3.        OS          l-i 


IS    li 


I  li  ll 


I  li  ll 


B    IS 


Length  in  feet. 


5 

O 


to       o       <x> 


Length  in  feet. 


45 

PART  II.     USE  OF  TIMBER 

172.  The  discussion  of  our  timber  supply  falls  into  two 
main  parts.    One  is  the  production  of  future  crops,  and  this 
has  been  discussed  in  Part  I.     The  other  is  the  preparation 
and  use  of  the  crops  on  hand  or  which  may  be  produced 
hereafter;  Part  II  deals  with  this  second  division  of  the  sub- 
ject. 

CHAPTER  I.    SAW  MILLS  ON  THE  FARM 

173.  There  are  a  great  many  farms  in  Georgia  with 
enough  timber  on  them  to  make  it  practicable  to  have  a  saw 
mill  on  them.    It  is  desirable  to  have  a  saw  mill  on  the  farm 
for  several  reasons.    One  reason  is  that  it  gives  the  farmer 
control  of  the  operation.     He  can  make  it  fit  the  condition  of 
his  timber.     He  can  study  his  timber  and  cut  it  when  it  is 
ripe.     If  he  has  the  cutting  and  sawing  done  by  contract,  he 
cannot  have  the  same  control.     The  work  is  done  by  men 
who  have  no  permanent  interest  in  the  place,  whose  only  in- 
terest is  to  get  what  they  can  out  of  it  and  go.     In  some  cases 
he  has  to  cut  timber  before  it  is  ripe;  and  in  others  he  has  to 
let  it  deteoriate,  because  there  is  not  enough  of  it  to  induce 
a  contractor  to  come. 

174.  Another  reason  why  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  saw 
mill  on  the  farm  is  that  it  enables  the   farmer  to   keep  his 
hands  and  stock  busy  when  it  is  hard  to  find  anything  for 
them  to  do.     There  are  many  days  in  the  year  when  it  is  wet 
or  unseasonable  for  work  in  the  fields,  which  can  be  turned 
to  good  account  in  the  woods  or  at  the  saw  mill. 

175.  Another  reason  is  that  it  tends   to  build  up  the 
place.     Improvements  and  repairs  are  easier  to  make  if  the 


46 

material  is  at  hand  than  when  it  must  be  hauled  from  a  dis- 
tance. It  is  also  more  often  possible  to  get  the  kind  of  tim- 
ber needed  and  in  the  right  sizes. 

176.  The  small  No.  0,  or  Pony,  saw  mill  is  sometimes 
recommended  for  farm  use.    It  is  cheap,  and  when  properly 
handled  does  satisfactory  work  with  small  and  medium  logs. 
But  the  No.  1  mill  can  turn  out  more  lumber  in  a  day,  is  less 
liable  to  get  out  of  order,  and  can  handle  larger  logs;  so  that 
it  may  be  cheaper  in  the  end  to  get  the  No.  1  mill.    The  cost 
of  some  of  the  articles  varies  with  the  different  dealers,  some 
charging  more  for  one  article  and  less  for  another,   but  sen 
outfit  ©f  standard  make  foots  up  nearly  the  same  with  all  of 
the  dealers.    The  following  is  about  the  average  cost;— 

No.  1  mill $355 

50-inch  saw 75 

Belts 45 

Cant  hooks  and  sundries 20 

$  495 

177.  A  shingle  mill  is  a  useful  adjunct  to  the  saw   mill, 
since  there  is  often  a  call  for  shingles  to  cover  farm  build- 
ings.   A  shingle  mill  costs  about  $85. 

178.  The  steam  engine  is  better  adapted  to  driving  a 
saw  mill  than  the  gasoline  engine.     The  load  is  an  irregular 
one,  and  the  steam  engine  accommodates  itself  more  readily 
to  an  irregular  load.    And  it  is  simpler  and  easier  to  run. 
For  farm  use  the  portable  type,  with  engine  on  the  boiler,  is 
best;  for  the  engine  is  needed  on  different  parts  of  the  farm 
to  run  gins,  shredders,  feed  choppers,  and  syrup  mills.    A 
15-horse  power  engine  will  pull  a  No.    1  mill  satisfactorily. 
It  costs  about  $850. 

179.  The  mill  and  engine  should  have  a  good  roof  over 


47 

them.    As  soon  as  the  year's  sawing  is  done  all  of  the  parts 
that  are  likely  to  rust  should  be  oiled  or  painted. 

180.  It  hardly  pays  to  put  a  saw  mill  on  a  farm  unless 
there  are  40,000  feet  to  be  cut  each  year;  or  to  express  it  in 
acres,  unless  there  are  about  250  acres  of  well  stocked  tim- 
ber land.  The  writer  knows  a  mill  that  is  operated  on  a 
place  where  there  are  only  150  acres  of  timber  land;  but  the 
neighbors  bring  in  logs  for  custom  sawing,  so  that  really  the 
mill  is  fed  from  a  much  larger  area.  If  there  is  less  than 
40,000  feet  to  be  cut,  interest,  taxes,  and  depreciation  eat  up 
the  profits.  With  good  management  and  40,000  and  over  to 
saw,  the  farm  mill  earns  a  neat  profit. 


CHAPTER  II.    PRESERVATIVES 

Sedtion  1.    Cause  of  Decay 

181.  At  ordinary  temperatures  wood  is  a  stable  com- 
pound.  Unless  it  is  acted  on  by  some  outside  agency  it  will  1  ast 
forever.     When  we  speak  of  wood  rotting  we  mean  that  it 
has  been  attacked  by  a  fungus.     The  fungi  have  no  green 
leaves  and  cannot  draw  their  food  from  the  soil    and  air  as 
trees  and  other  plants  with  green  leaves  do.    They  must 
feed  on  the  tissues  of  other  plants.     It  was  pointed  out  at 
Paragraph  136  that  the  fungi   sometimes  feed   on   standing 
trees.     They  also  feed  on  timber  when  it  is  cut. 

Section  2.    Conditions  of  Decay. 

182.  The  fungi  must  have  several   conditions  to  live. 
First  of  all  the  organism  itself  must  be  present,  either  in  the 
form  of  spores  or  fragments  of  a  mature  plant.     An  experi- 
ment running  over  many  years  was  made  by  the  late  Profes- 
sor W.  H.  Brewer,  of  Yale,  which  proved  that  wood  does  not 
rot  no  matter  how  favorable  the  other   conditions  are,    pro- 
vided the  organism  is  not  transplanted  to  it.     The  other  con- 
ditions are  air,  water,  heat,  and  food — all  of  which  must  be 
present  in  sufficient  quantities  or  a  fungus  cannot  live   and 
#row  after  it  has  been  transplanted.     Timbers  that  have 
been  buried  where  the  air  could  not  reach  them  have  lasted 
for  centuries.    Timbers  used  in  dry  places  do  not  decay;  the 
so-called  dry  rot  is  in  places  where  there  is  some  moisture. 
Timbers  kept  at  low  temperatures  do  not  decay;  and  decay  is 
more  rapid  in  warm  climates  than  in  cool  climates.     And 
timbers  which  have  been  poisoned  and  rendered  unfit   for 
food  for  the  fungi  do  not  decay. 


49 

Section  3.    Prevention  of  Decay 

183.  Decay  can  be  prevented  by  excluding  one  of  the 
conditions  necessary  for  the  life  of  the  fungi.    If  they  can 
be  kept  from  entering,  or  if  the  air  or  water  can  be  excluded, 
or  if  the  tissues  can  be  poisoned,  the  timber  can  be  made  to 
last  indefinitely.     Most  of  the  preservatives  act  in  more  than 
one  way.     Paints,  for  instance,  coat  the  surface  of  the  wood, 
and  exclude  the  spores,  air,  and  water,  and  they  also  con- 
tain poisonous  substances.     One  of  the  best  and  cheapest 
preservatives  is  creosote.    This,    like  paint,    excludes  the 
spores,  air,  and  water;  and  the  carbolic  acid  which  it  con- 
tains poisons  the  tissues  of  the  wood. 

184.  Creosote  is  applied  in  different  ways.     One  way  is 
to  heat  it  and  apply  with  a  brush,   like  paint.      This  is  a 
cheap  way;  but  it  is  not  so  effective  as  some  of  the  others; 
because  the  creosote  does  not  go  deeply  into  the  wood.    But 
for  shingles  it  is  the  most  practicable;  for  if  they  are  treated 
in  some  other  way  before  they  are  laid,  they  are  apt  to  stick 
together  and  become  hard  to  handle  and  the  creosote  is  hard 
on  the  hands  of  the  workmen.    So  it  is  best  to  lay  the  shin- 
gles and  then  to  apply  the  creosote  with  a  brush,  letting  it  flow 
freely  so  that  it  will  get  into  the  cracks. 

185.  Another  method  used  mostly  for  treating  posts,  is 
known  as  the  open-tank  method.    The  posts  are  placed  in  a 
tank  of  hot  creosote;  and   after  2  hours  the  hot  liquid  is 
drawn  off  and  cold  creosote  is  run  in.    The  posts  are  left  in 
the  cold  liquid  for  2  hours  and  then  removed.     The  heating 
expands  the  air  in  the  posts  and   drives  it  out.     When  the 
cold  liquid  is  turned  on  the  pressure  of  the  air  on  the  outside 
drives  the  creosote  into  the   vacua  that  have  been   created. 
The  objection  to  this  method  is  that  the  outfit  costs  about 


50 

$50;  and  it  would  not  pay  except  on  a  very  large  farm  where 
there  is  a  great  deal  of  fencing  to  be  done. 

186.  A  method  has  been  devised  by  the  writer  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  small  farmer.     A  simple  galvanized  iron 
tube,  10  inches  across  and  5  feet  long,   is  used.     It  can  be 
made  by  any  tinner,  at  a  cost  of  not  more  than  $2.    The  one 
shown  in  the  cuts  cost  $1.50.    The  tube  is  leaned  against  a 
bench  or  other  support  at  a  convenient  slant,   filled  about 
two-thirds  full  of  creosote;  and  a  small  fire  is  built  against 
the  bottom.    A  post  is  dipped  into  the  tube  and   withdrawn 
after  3  or  4  minutes.     It  is  placed  upright  with  the  lower 
end  in  a  bucket  to  catch  the  creosote  that  drains  off.     An- 
other post  is  placed  in  the  tube,    and   the  first  is  removed 
from  the  bucket  and  placed  on  the  pile.     The  cost  of  treating 
posts  for  3  feet  at  one  end  is  from  2  to  3  cents.    This  meth- 
od is  not  so  effective  as  the  open-tank  treatment,    but  it  is 
more  effective  than  the  brush  treatment,   and  it  costs  less 
than  either. 

187.  Timber  should  be  seasoned  before  it  is  treated 
with  a  preservative;  and  it  is  best  to  let  it  stand  for  some 
weeks  after  treatment. 

188.  It  hardly  pays  to  treat  timbers  that  are  naturally 
lasting,  such  as  heart  pine,  white  ©ak,  mulberry,  and  locust. 
But  it  does  pay  to  treat  the  black  oaks,  loblolly  pine  and  the 
like.    With  only  a  brush  treatment  some  loblolly  pine  posts 
put  in  4  years  ago  are  still  serviceable  and  will  probably  not 
have  to  be  taken  out  for  2  more  years.     Loblolly  pine  with- 
out treatment  lasts  about  2  years.     While  definite  information 
is  hard  to  get,   the  indications  are  that  the  loblolly  pine, 
which  is  cheap,  easy  to  cut,    light  to  handle,   and  easy  to 
drive  staples  into,  can  with  the  tube  treatment  be  made  to 
last  as  long  as  white  oak,  which  is  expensive,    hard   to  cut, 
heavy  to  handle,  and  hard  to  drive  staples  into. 


51 

CHAPTER  III.    FIREWOOD 

189.  Firewood  should  come  from  limbs,   tops,   and  the 
trees  taken  out  in  thinnings  for  improvement.    Trees  that 
are  large  enough  to  make  saw-logs  or  that  give  promise  of 
growing  into  saw-logs  should  not  be  cut  for  firewood.    The 
wood  used  for  fuel  on  the  farm  should   be  so  much  waste 
saved,  so  much  improvement  made,<and  not  a  drain  on  the 
stands  of  timber. 

190.  To  give  the  best  results  firewood  should  be  cut  and 
stacked  some  months  before  it  is  used.     Green  wood  burns 
longer  than  dry  wood,  but  a  large  part  of  the  heat  is  spent 
in  driving  off  the  moisture. 

191.  A  great  deal  of  the  wood  used  for  fuel  is  burned 
in  open  fireplaces.    Fireplaces  have  their  advantages,  one  of 
which  is  their  cheerfulness;  but  as  a  means  of  heating  a  cold 
room  and  keeping  it  at  an  even  temperature  they  are  inade- 
quate.   A  large  part  of  the  heat  goes  up  the  chimney;  and 
this  means  a  large  consumption  of  fuel.    There  is  no  way  to 
regulate  the  heat;  the  room  is  very  hot  or  very  cold.     And 
there  is  risk  of  setting  the  house  afire,  since  the  fire  is  not 
enclosed. 

192.  While  not  so  cheerful,  stoves  consume  less  fuel, 
can  be  regulated,  and  are  not  as  liable  to  set  the  house  afire. 
No  record  of  a  test  of  the  comparative  efficiency  of   stoves 
and  fireplaces  could  be  found;  so  a  test  was  made  in  the  win- 
ters of  1911  and  1912.    Wood  was  weighed  out  in  equal  piles. 
The  piles  were  burned  alternately  in  the  fireplace  and  in  the 
stove.    In  order  to  have  the  conditions  the  same,  the  same 
room  was  used ;  the  fireplace  was  closed  on  alternate  days 
and  the  stove  set  up.    The  tests  were  carried  on  for  10  days, 


52 

so  that  variations  of  weather  would  be  evened  off  as  far  as 
possible.  Thermometers  were  hung  in  the  middle  of  the 
room,  near  the  wall  farthest  away  from  the  chimney,  and 
on  the  outside  of  the  house.  The  comparison  was  made  by 
recording  the  time  that  the  temperature  at  the  middle  of  the 
room  was  kept  above  65  degrees  Fahrenheit.  These  tests 
showed  that  the  wood  burned  in  the  stove  kept  the  room 
above  65  degrees  a  little  more  than  13  times  as  long  as  the 
wood  burned  in  the  open  fireplace.  With  the  same  condi- 
tions one  cord  of  wood  burned  in  a  stove  goes  as  far  as  13 
cords  burned  in  an  open  fire-place.  On  some  of  the  coldest 
days  when  the  warmth  was  needed  most,  the  fireplace  never 
raised  the  temperature  to  65  degrees. 

193.  The  stove  used  was  of  the  sheet-iron  type.    These 
are  easily  fed  and  easily  regulated.    The  large  sizes  cost 
about  $5.50,  including  pipe  and  floor  mat.     The  writer  has 
some  that  have  been  in  use  for  6  years;  and  they  can   be 
counted  on    to  last  for  at  least  five  years  if  oiled  each 
spring.    Rusting  during  the  summer  months  is  harder  on 
them  than  use  during  the  winter.     If  a  stove  is  in  a  room 
where  a  fire  is  kept  going  steadily,  it  soon  pavs  for  itself  and 
then  effects  a  considerable  saving. 

194.  There  is  a  belief  that  stoves  are  not  as  healthful  as 
fireplaces.     Enquiries  were  made  of  physicians.    They  were 
of  the  opinion  that  stoves  are  as  healthful  as  fireplaces,  pro- 
vided ventilation  is  secured.     In  some  respects  they  are  more 
healthful,  for  they  consume  less  oxygen  to  produce  a  given 
amount  of  heat  and  they  keep  the  room  at  an  evener  temper- 
ature and  this  is  of    considerable    importance,    especially 
where  there  are  small  children. 


53 

PART   III.    PLAGE   OF   WOQDL A$DS  :J»/;  FARM 
MANAGEMENT  " 

195.  The  length  of  time  that  it  takes  to  grow  a  crop  of 
timber  keeps  many  owners  from  practicing  forestry.     Al- 
though they  consider  timber  a  profitable  crop,  they  think  of 
the  harvest  as  too  far  in  the  future  to  be  of  any  interest  to 
them.    This  attitude  comes  from  looking  at  only  one  side  of 
the  question.     It  is  true  that  it  takes  a  long  time,   in   some 
cases  more  than  a  hundred  years,  to  grow  a  crop  of  timber; 
but  it  is  also  true  that  the  average  owner  does  not  have  to 
start  with  the  bare  ground;  he  starts  with  a  stand  of  timber, 
some  of  which  is  mature  and  ready  for  the  market;  and  with 
very  little  or  no  curtailment  of  his  immediate  profits,  he  can 
improve  his  stand  so  as  to  increase  future  profits.     The  con- 
ditions are  like  those  in  a  store  that  is  partly  stocked.    The 
store-keeper  may    improve  the    quality  of  his  stock  and 
increase  its  size  and  continue  to  sell  goods  in  the  meantime. 

196.  The  timber  crop  has  its  place  in  farm  management. 
Nearly  every  farmer  needs  lumber  for  bridges,  fences,  cribs, 
and  barns,  and  cord  wood  for  fuel.     If  he  produces  this  ma- 
terial on  the  farm,  he  not  only  saves  himself  the  inconven- 
ience and  expense  of  bringing  it  from  a  distance,    but  he 
makes  the  profit  involved  in  ks  production. 

197.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  complaint  about  the  scar- 
city of  labor  on  the  farm.    Indeed  there  is  a  movement  to 
import  foreign  laborers  into  some  of  the  Southern  States. 
Such  a  movement  can  give  only  temporary  relief.     The  final 
solution  must  be  sought  for  in  other  directions,   and  one  of 
these  is  provision   for  employment  throughout  the   year. 
Steady  employment  is  one  of  the  first  conditions  of  getting 


54 

together  and  of  Beeping;  together  a  force  of  dependable  la- 
borers. Timber  lands  on  a  farm,  especially  if  in  connection 
with  a  saw-mill,  furnish  employment  when  work  in  the  fields 
is  at  a  standstill.  There  is  least  to  do  in  the  fields  in  the 
winter  and  this  is  the  best  time  to  work  in  the  woods;  so 
that  one  fits  into  the  other.  In  this  way  timberlands  are  of 
importance  in  farm  management,  not  only  because  of  the 
material  which  they  produce,  but  because  they  furnish  a 
means  of  keeping  labor  ready  for  work  in  the  fields  when  a 
perishable  crop  must  be  moved  quickly  or  be  lost. 

198.  According  to  the  Federal  census  there  are  26,392,- 
000  acres  in  Georgia  farm  holdings.     Of  this  area    only 
10,615,000  acres  are  reported  to  be  in  field  crops.     This  leaves 
15,777,000  acres  in  woodland  and  waste.    There  is  very  little 
waste  land;  and  most  of  what  is  called  waste  is  capable  of 
producing  timber  crops.     More  than  one-half  of  the  average 
farm  in  Georgia  is  covered  by  woods;  and  since  the  set- 
tlement by  our  people  has  been  going  on  for  182  years  and 
clearing  has  progressed  no  further  than  it  has,  it  is  not  like- 
ly that  the  wooded  area  will  be  greatly  reduced  for  several 
generations.     The  owners  must  pay  taxes  on  this  land  and 
they  are  out  the  interest  on  the  investment.    It  is  clearly  to 
their  advantage  to  make  this  land  as  productive  as  the  con- 
ditions will  permit.    The  practice  of  forestry  is  the  means  to 
this  end. 

199.  While  the  main  effort  of  the  farmer  should  be  ex- 
pended on  his  field  crops  and  live  stock,  some  part  of  it  may 
be  profitably  expended  on  his  woodlands.     Their  place    in 
farm  management  is  that  of  a  useful  adjunct  to  the  farm. 


INDEX 

Absorption.. _ I Par.     9 

Anchorage 9 

Annual  layers 3 

Ash,  green 102 

Ash.  red 102 

Ash,  water _  102 

Ash.  white 102 

Bark  beetles 139 

Basswood .. 91 

Beech .__.  50 

Branches,  function  of 3 

Branches  and  knots 3 

Catalpa,  hardy 103 

Catalpa,  common 104 

Checklist,  Sudworth's 108 

Cherry,  black ^'78 

Chestnut . 53 

Clear  cutting 165 

Coastal  plain 12 

Cottonwood 47,  115 

Creosote 183,  184,  185,    186 

Cuttings 115 

Cypress,  bald 30 

Decay 181,  182,  183 

Dominant  trees 152 

Estimate  of  stand 169 

Eucalypts 107 

Fire..  142 


Fire  lines 147 

Fireplaces 191 

Firewood . 189,  190 

Foliage,  extent  of 8 

Foliage,  function  of 4 

Fungi, 136 

Gum,    black 94 

Gum,  sweet 72 

Hickory,  bitternut 42 

Hickory,  mockernut 39 

Hickory,  pecan 43 

Hickory,  pignut 42 

Hickory,  shagbark 42 

Hickory,  shellbark 42 

Improvement  thinnings 152 

Insects 138 

Intermediate  trees 152 

Juniper,  red 33 

Knots,  formation  of 3 

Labor 197 

Leaves,  arrangement  of 7 

Locust,  honey 81 

Locust,  yellow 84 

Lime,  Ogeechee 96 

Log  rule 171 

Maple,  red 87 

Mature  timber 162 

Mockernut..  39 


Mountains 12 

Mulberry,  red 66 

Oak,  chestnut 61 

Oak,  cow 61 

Oak,  live 61 

Oak,  post 61 

Oak,  red 62 

Oak,  scarlet 65 

Oak,  Spanish 65 

Oak,  water 65 

Oak,  white 58 

Oak,  willow  65 

Oak,  yellow     .   65 

Pecan 43 

Persimmon . 99 

Piedmont  plateau 12 

Pine  bark  beetle 139 

Pine,  Cuban __  20 

Pine,  loblolly 23 

Pine,  longleaf 17 

Pine,  shortleaf 26 

Poplar,  yellow  71 

Preservatives 181.  182,  183 

Protection  ._ 135 

Regulation  of  cut 166,  167 

Reproduction 110,  111,  115,    116 

Respiration 9 

Roots,  functions  of -  ._   2 

Root-hairs 2 

Rootlets..  2 


Sargent's  Manual ._  108 

Saw-mills 173,  174,  175,  176 

Seed 116 

Seed-bed 127 

Seed-spots 122 

Sprouts __  in 

Steam  engine __ 178 

Stem,  function  of 3 

Stoves 192,  193 

Strip  estimation 169 

Sudworth's  Checklist 13,  108 

Suppressed  trees 152 

Thinnings 152 

Transpiration 9 

Tube  method  of  creosoting 186 

Tulip-tree 69 

Tupelo % 

Use  of  timber 172 

Walnut,  black 36 

Willow,  black 44,  115 


To  be  had  of  the  author  at  Greensboro, 
Georgia,  The  price  with  paper  backs  is 
60  cents,  bound  in  board  80  cents. 


JW&L, 


* 


u.c. 


f*3373\- 

328404 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


